The Engineering Projects

Why Connected Gadgets Are a Bad Fit for Municipal Applications

These days, it seems everything is a part of the internet of things (IoT). There is hardly a category of consumer gadget that doesn’t have an IP address or that connects to the internet in some way. One of the most venerable and respected authorities in tech news had good reason to wonder if many internet of things devices should even exist. We all need to be more careful about our salt intake. But does that somehow justify the existence of a salt dispenser with an internet connection? The internet is not going to be much help when cooking toast. Yet you can get a toaster with that feature. It is important we don’t overreact to the obvious abuses of technology. There will always be opportunists to take advantage of a new technology trend and leave a bad taste in the mouths of potential consumers. On the whole, connected devices are a good thing and can provide an extra measure of utility and security. As with everything, one just has to be discerning enough to know the difference between items that are genuinely helpful and ridiculously wasteful.

Safety

A city or township could deploy powered exoskeletons for the part of the workforce that literally does the heavy lifting, The wearer of the suit is the sole operator of the suit. No part of the operation is subject to an iffy connection with a network. The wearer controls the suit at all times. The reason exoskeleton suits are so safe is that they are always under the complete control of the wearer. Each element of the suit is activated by the operator’s initiative. If the operator wishes to lift something heavy and awkward, she uses familiar grappling and lifting motions and the exoskeleton responds. This arrangement enhances the ability of a single lifter to move objects that might otherwise require multiple people. It is always safer when a person can lift with less strain and reduce the tendency to drop items that could cause injury if mishandled. When it comes to heavy lifting, the only thing you want your equipment connected to is a skilled human who knows how to use it.

Security

Police departments, emergency responders, and hospitals cannot afford to be hacked. One thing we have learned about the internet of things is that security is seldom the highest priority. When it comes to purveyors of these goods. They often come with basic passwords that don’t have to be changed before being deployed. Your security cameras should never activate until you have a secure password. These companies are also not especially vigilant when it comes to providing the best hardware and software encryption. Their priority is selling and not security. We have already seen the consequences of hospitals being held hostage by ransomware attacks. We have seen hackers get into public utilities such as the water supply. Every connection to the internet is a vector of attack. The last thing you want is for every light bulb in the sheriff’s office to be an easy target for hackers. If security is your priority, stay away from connected devices to the extent possible.

Savings

Municipalities don’t have money to burn. They have to operate on a strict budget. They can ill-afford $60 light bulbs. Connected devices tend to cost more because they have added components and unnecessary complexity. That also means they are less likely to last as long as a simpler device. One of the reasons is that connected devices have a software component. What happens when that software needs an update or becomes obsolete? In far too many cases, the device becomes useless. Sooner than you want, your internet of things will be transformed into a basement of bricks. That said, IoT has a lot of promise when deployed well. But the technology is not a good fit for municipal deployment due to legitimate concerns about safety, security, and spending.

Solar Power Careers For Engineers

Solar power is now generating the cheapest electricity in history, a new report by the International Energy Agency reveals. Harnessing energy from the sun via solar panels is key to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and creating a sustainable world. Heavy investment in solar infrastructure will also play a much-needed role in this transition. In turn, solar energy is creating a diverse range of careers for engineers, including industrial engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and material science and chemistry.

Industrial Engineering

In recent years, solar panels have become increasingly efficient and affordable. As such, commercial install projects are becoming more and more in demand. Commercial solar panels can help businesses successfully decrease operating costs, reduce tax liability through government credits, and boost profits by differentiating from competitors. Industrial engineers are largely responsible for these recent improvements in solar panel technology; their job is to optimize the technologies and production methods used to manufacture solar components. Specifically, industrial engineers devise and test various mathematical models with the aim of minimizing waste. They may have a degree in industrial engineering, electrical engineering, or mechanical engineering. Fortunately, the professional growth outlook for industrial engineers remains strong with a 10% expansion in total employment expected by 2016-2026 (which is much greater on average than other engineering professions). The salary is also impressive: it’s around $87,000 per year on average.

Mechanical Engineering

Demand for solar panels is undoubtedly increasing at a rapid rate. Mechanical engineers play a vital role in ensuring the supply process keeps up with the demand by keeping it extremely smooth and streamlined, as well as looking for ways to improve both the product and the system. They may work in either a laboratory, production plant, or engineering firm. Essentially, mechanical engineers deal with the machinery and equipment used to automate the manufacturing process. For example, they’ll spend time researching, creating, and testing key industrial equipment, such as the machines used to cut silicon wafers. These wafers will then be formed into solar cells and used to form a functioning solar panel. Moreover, mechanical engineers may also supervise the creation of electric generators, along with other vital equipment used in solar power plants. Some mechanical engineers oversee the design phase, which involves utilizing computer-aided design (CAD) software to map out and develop design ideas. This process is followed up with research, developing prototypes, and testing. Just like industrial engineers, mechanical engineers can look forward to a strong employment growth outlook of 9% from 2016-2026 with a similar average salary of $87,370 annually.

Electrical Engineering

An inverter is one of the most important components in the generation of solar power; it converts direct current (DC) electricity (generated by solar panels) into alternating current (AC) electricity that’s used by the electrical grid. Where do electrical engineers fit in? Well, they have the essential job of designing, testing, and refining inverters and other pieces of equipment in order for the sun to be converted into electricity. The future growth outlook for this profession is strong — 7% between 2016-2026. Moreover, electrical engineers can also enjoy a higher salary than both industrial engineers and mechanical engineers ($99,070 a year on average).

Material Scientists and Chemists

Material scientists and chemists are similar career paths both responsible for developing the granular components that comprise solar panels. Material scientists, in particular, work with and analyze various materials in order to determine the most efficient for use. Space limitations and aesthetic considerations surrounding specific solar projects are also taken into account. In most cases, solar panels are currently able to transform between 15%-22% of solar energy into usable energy (this also depends on a host of factors including weather conditions, orientation, and placement). Material scientists are tasked with the responsibility of improving this figure. Chemists, on the other hand, have a similar job: they focus on researching and testing innovative solar cell design concepts, largely drawing upon their extensive knowledge of semiconductors and organic materials (solar cells are usually made from materials like organometallic compounds, crystalline silicon, and cadmium telluride). Similar to the other solar engineering careers, chemists and material scientists can also look forward to a 7% growth in these professions from 2016 to 2026 (which is an average rate of growth compared to all other occupations). You can also enjoy a lucrative salary as either a solar material scientist or chemist; the pay is just over $78,000 per year on average. Solar energy is fast becoming the world’s most valued power source. Whether it’s in the realms of industrial, mechanical, electrical, material science or chemistry, engineers can enjoy a range of meaningful and fulfilling careers that support this important transition and help create a more sustainable world for future generations to enjoy.

Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor(KY-024) Library for Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing fine. Today, I am going to share a new Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor Library for Proteus. We are sharing this library for the first time and we hope it will help students in their final year & semester projects. In this library, you will find 4 models of the KY-024 Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor. First, we will have a look at the brief overview of Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor, then will add its Library in proteus and will simulate it. So, let's get started:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	Arduino Uno	Amazon	Buy Now

What is Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor?

• Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor is used to measure the density of magnetic field in the surroundings using Hall Effect Principle.
• KY-024 is the sensor's model used for measuring magnetic density.
• There are many different breakout boards available but they all are using the same sensor i.e. KY-024.

So, let's install its Proteus Library and simulate it:

Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor Library(Ky-024) for Proteus

• First of all, download the Proteus Library zip file for Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor, by clicking the below button:

Proteus Library Files

• In this zip file, we need to open the folder titled Proteus Library Files.
• In this folder, you will find three Proteus Library files, named:
  • MagneticHallEffectSensorTEP.IDX
  • MagneticHallEffectSensorTEP.LIB
  • MagneticHallEffectSensorTEP.HEX
• We need to place these files in the Library folder of our Proteus software.

Note:

• If you are facing problems with adding a library in Proteus 7 or 8 Professional, then have a look at How to add a new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• Now, open Proteus ISIS and if you are already working on it, restart it.
• In the components search box, make a search for "Magnetic Hall" and you will get four results, as shown in the below figure:

• Let's place these four Hall Effect sensors' models in our Proteus workspace.

So, we have successfully added these sensors to our Proteus software. Let's design a simple simulation to have a look at its working:

KY-024 Proteus Simulation

• As we have seen this simulated model of KY-024 has five pins in total:
  1. A0: Analog output.
  2. G: Ground.
  3. V: Vcc (Power).
  4. D0: Digital output.
  5. Test: For testing purposes.

Why Test Pin is used?

• As it's stimulation, so we can't actually create a magnetic field around the sensor, that's why we have placed this Test Pin.
• As the voltage at Test Pin will increase, the sensor will consider it as magnetic density is increasing around.
  • If Test Pin is at 0V, the sensor will feel no magnetic field.
  • If Test Pin is 5V, the sensor will feel a maximum magnetic field.
• We will attach a potentiometer to the Test Pin, for variable voltage levels.

Adding Hex File to the sensor

• In order to operate the magnetic Hall Effect sensor, we need to add a hex file in its properties panel.(We have placed the hex file in the Library folder)
• So, double click on your sensor to open its properties panel.
• In the Upload Hex File section, browse to your sensor's hex file, as shown in below figure:

• After adding the hex file to the sensor, click on the Ok button to close the properties panel.

Now our sensor is fully operational, so let's design its simulation:

Proteus Simulation of Magnetic Hall Effect Sensor

• Now, let's design a simulation in Proteus software, as shown in the below figure:

• I have attached an LED with the digital output of the sensor and a voltmeter with analog output.
• I have also placed a simple LC filter at the analog output. This filter is not required in real hardware implementation.
• We are using it in Proteus simulation, as Proteus gives the peak to peak value and we have to convert that PP value into Vrms.
• If you are working on a real sensor then you don’t need to add this LC circuit.
• Now, let's run our simulation and if everything's configured correctly, you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, our sensors are working perfectly, now if you change the value of the potentiometer, their output will change accordingly.

So, that was all for today. I hope this sensor will help you guys in your final year and semester projects. If you have any questions, please ask in the comments. Thanks for reading. Take care !!! :)

Factors To Consider When Choosing The Ideal Material For Sheet Metal Fabrication

The sheet metal utilized in fabrication comprises an extensive list of possible materials. Making an ideal choice for your products means deciding about things like the sort of the metal, its width, and its shape. What you select should be in accordance with your overall outlook, desired final product, and suggestions from your sheet metal manufacturer. Sheet metal is produced from a diversity of metals with unique properties, and each of them offers certain benefits. Sheet metal is among the most significant building materials within the manufacturing sector. It’s usually fabricated from metals like aluminum, nickel, steel, tin, brass, titanium, and copper. When it comes to product design, manufacturers have to choose the most suitable metal choice to use for their specific requirements.

Photo from Pinterest

The landscape of materials within the manufacturing industry is immense, and sometimes it might be intimidating to select the proper material for your sheet metal fabrication project. With sheet metal fabrication experiencing diverse technological advances and innovations, you must also adapt to the latest trends by making an investment in the proper material to serve your needs. To better understand why the material choice plays a significant role, you should be aware of specific factors before selecting a material. Once you go through these factors, you can link them to your goal and product to decide which material will be the best option for your sheet metal prototypes. This article guides you through the most significant factors you must bear in mind when choosing the sheet metal material for your prototype. Therefore, if you’re interested in learning how to select your materials for sheet metal fabrication, continue reading ahead.

Consider The Material’s Hardness

Hardness relates to the metal’s capability to withstand deformation in case of impact, load, or abrasion. Hardness can be measured based on its resistance to indentations, scratches, and bounces. Besides, certain issues with hardness are possible to overcome through a hardening process. Hardness is crucial for load-bearing constructions because hard metals are better at withstanding abrasion and load. Metals with high levels of hardness are titanium, bronze, hot rolled steel, spring steel, stainless steel, brass, and cast iron. On the contrary, metals with low hardness are copper, aluminum, and lead.

Purpose And End Use

You need to always begin with having clear objectives and views on how your product will be used. Once you get a new point of view and re-envision your metal products, you may even enhance your product’s lifetime. Furthermore, think about the other components your parts will interact with,  and the conditions your sheet metal prototypes will be placed under for use.

Shape And Geometry

With all the technological advances in the manufacturing sector, various materials are easily adjustable. So, think if your prototype will require basic bends or complex linear forms. Examine and learn the qualities and characteristics of varied materials such as aluminum, steel, stainless steel, brass, copper, lead, and brass.

Photo from USA Today

Discover which material and procedure go well together in order to achieve your expected results. Some types of sheet metal are easier for bending over others. For example, the majority of aluminum grades are very pliant. The advantage of a material that’s easily pliable is that it gives you the possibility to combine separate parts. In fact, you may replace screwing or welding. It will reduce piece count and ease assemblage.

Corrosion Resistance

When choosing a material, you should consider the conditions it’ll be exposed to once placed. Some metals react better than others to oxidation, water, or other elements. For example, metals such as stainless steel won’t erode, but they may develop an oxide layer. You should also take into consideration that galvanic corrosion may happen when different metals are in contact together. Metals that are less corrosion resistant are cold-rolled carbon steel, copper, aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, nickel, and tin.

Requirement & Run Length

You have to think of the impact of the preliminary cash flow management and the long-term ROI (return on investment) offered by the material you choose. Make the necessary calculations and look into the approximate yearly units you will need, and if the material you pick will balance the return on investment. Tooling expense amortization can provide you the best investment return. Consequently, take into account that aspect likewise prior to zeroing in on materials.

Size of The Prototype

Depending on the size of the prototype you want to fabricate, know that each technique can fabricate a specific amount of metal length. For instance, roll-forming enables you to fabricate pieces as far as 16 meters in length. So, examine the size of your sheet metal prototypes, particularly the length of the part. Afterward, according to that criteria, select the proper material and the technique as well.

Think about the Cost for the Material Beforehand

Cost generally isn't the most significant factor when choosing a sheet metal for fabricating a prototype. It’s crucial to make the best selection based on the factors we’ve listed above. However, if there is a valid alternative with a lower cost, it’s always worth considering. Still, bear in mind that many times lower cost materials need additional processing, which can result in you not, in fact, saving a lot, so you could have used the higher cost material in the first place. High price metal is stainless steel, and low price metals hot rolled steel, low carbon steel, and tin.

Why Material Choice is Important

These factors we mentioned above will enable you to exclude other material options while making your selection and choose the material which suits the most for your products or parts. The material choice is significant because metals behave differently to different surroundings and conditions. That involves actions like, for instance, cooling, heating, cooling, molding, and melting. For that reason, most of all, the choice of material matters in sheet metal fabrication projects. Selecting the best material for your parts will provide you with a competitive advantage by improving factors like quality, mechanical properties, endurance, function, and performance. The chosen material needs to be able to sustain its strength and physical features during the process of manufacturing. If you don’t select the proper metal, your product will probably fail during the manufacturing procedure.

Final Words

Selecting the right material for your sheet metal prototypes will provide your product many benefits and improve its overall quality, function, and performance. If you overlook choosing the right material, the chances of prototype failure during the manufacturing process are high. Therefore, evaluate our guide before you begin with your sheet metal fabrication project because the factors we listed above can help any manufacturer select the correct metal.

15+ BEST Video Compressor in 2021

If you are a full-time video editor, then you will always need a set of tools that will help you to edit and create your videos. Video compressors are one of them. There are too many different kinds of such tools available on the internet. That is why it can get confusing to choose the best video compressor. If you don't know how to compress a video, then it is essential that you use a good-quality compressor. It will help you to save space, send files faster and also maintain the same quality and resolution. To help you choose the best video compressor in the market, we have brought you a list of all the best products that we have found out. These are some of the software that will genuinely help you to compress a video on both Windows and Mac OS. So, without further ado, let's check out the top software.

1. VideoProc Ad

At first, you would think this to be only a basic video compressor app, but as you explore the app, you will find that there are several other features that make it a full editing software. You can process your videos like a pro with this. The software has more than 180 million downloads and can compress videos up to 90% of their original quality. You can even cut, crop, or edit different parts of it.

2. Handbrake

One of the most reliable and efficient video compressors in the market, Handbrake is available for both Windows and Mac OS. This is an open-source program that allows everyone to use the software for free. Handbrake can edit your videos to at least 90% of the original size and still maintain the original quality without a miss. It has MP3, Flac, AC3, AAC / HE-AAC or Vorbis support.

3. Final Cut Pro X Compressor

Final Cut Pro is the favorite video compressor for Mac users. It is a widely used default editing tool in Apple devices. The powerful features of the software are of the industry standard. It can easily help you compress even the highest quality videos without affecting the overall quality. You can choose to compress formats like 4K and 360°.

4. Movavi Video Converter

A well-known and easy-to-use video compressor, Movavi offers its users lightning-fast conversion without any significant loss in the video quality. You can now compress more than one file together using the Batch Processing feature. Just drag and drop the video in the particular area in the software and start the compression. It can quickly compress 4K quality videos also.

5. Wondershare UniConverter

Software that can be used on both Mac and Windows, Wondershare has a host of video editing tools that include this wonderful compressor as well. You also get some basic editing tools along with the compressor, and you can render them at super quick speed without loss of quality. It can support all the known standard formats.

6. InVideo Editor

One of the best video editing tools on this list, InVideo can help you do a lot of things with their software. The editor is packed with professional features and options, which helps you enjoy editing your videos in different formats. InVideo can process super-fast rendering speeds, and that saves you a lot of time. Maintain the same quality when compressing the videos and share the video directly from the software easily.

7. Any Video Converter

AVC is a tool that is specifically made to compress videos only. It can allow you to choose your own preferred parameters for compressing the videos and launch them. It also helps you to download videos from YouTube, Netflix, and many other popular websites. The software comes with NVIDIA NVENC accelerated encoding for a flawless 4K video downloading experience.

8. Filmora Video Converter

One of the most powerful video compressors on the list, this software is developed by Filmora, and it supports both Windows and Mac OS. You can access twelve different formats to compress the videos. This is more than enough for most of the editors in the market these days. There are twenty output formats present on it as well. The simple and intuitive UI makes it easy for anyone who is trying to compress a video.

9. BlazeMedia Pro

The software may look a bit old school and dated, but its performance is better than a lot of modern-day software. Yes! BalzeMedia Pro is one of the best video compressors available in 2021. Convert videos of any quality and video format within mins. The software does what it promises to do, and you can easily convert a wide range of videos without losing the bit of the original quality.

10. YouCompress

For anyone who is looking to convert videos that support AVI, MP4, and MOV format, then this is the best software for them. This product is also available online. That means you don't have to download and install it. You can access it directly from the website. This online compressor is best for those who are looking to resize different videos at a faster rate. The platform is very friendly, and you can learn more about it easily with the help of the tutorials that are provided.

11. Panda Video Compressor

This software is available for both desktop and mobile devices. Panda Video Compressor can compress your videos quickly without any hassles. You can choose to resize them and not affect the quality at all. The tool also allows you to share your favorite videos via email and on different social platforms directly from the software. This excellent compressor also supports a plethora of video formats.

12. Adobe Premiere Pro

Last but barely least, this is one of the most popular software used by newbies as well as the media industry. This software's tools and plug-ins will give you a feel-good mind state when you learn it. It is fun to use and highly professional at the same time. You will adore its interface once you start using it and can add an edge to your content!

 The Bottom Line

Video compressors are one of the most useful and important tools that editors need. All of them can help you compress your video in the best possible manner. In addition, they can help you save space, share your work easily, and even resize your videos without any hassles. So, grab one of them and start compressing your videos from now!

Lipo Battery Library for Proteus

Hello everyone, I hope you all are fine. In today's tutorial, we are going to share a new Lipo Battery Library for Proteus. Proteus has a 12V battery module in it but they are quite simple in looks, so we have simply designed a stylish looking lipo battery, I hope you will find it useful for a better project presentation. This Proteus Library has two Lipo Batteries in it, one is of 3.7V and the second one is of 11.1V, these are normally available Lipo models in the market. Although, you can change the voltage level of these batteries from their properties panel. Let's first have a look at the brief introduction of Lipo Baterry:

What is Lipo Battery???

• Lipo is an abbreviation of lithium polymer battery, designed using lithium-ion technology and uses polymer electrodes.
• Lipo Battery provides high power in a small package and thus used in autonomous project i.e. quadcopter, robotic vehicles etc.

Lipo Battery Library for Proteus

• First of all, we need to download the Proteus Library zip file of the Lipo battery, by clicking the below button:

Lipo Battery Library for Proteus

• In this zip file, you will find a folder named Proteus Library Files.
• In this folder, we have two files:
  • LipoBatteryTEP.LIB
  • LipoBatteryTEP.IDX
• Place these two files in the library folder of your Proteus software

Note:

• If you are facing problems with adding a library in Proteus 7 or 8 Professional, then have a look at How to add a new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• After adding these Library files, open your Proteus software or restart it, if it's already open.
• In the components section, make a search for Lipo Battery and you will get results, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see, now we have two Lipo batteries in the components database, so let's place them in the Proteus workspace.

• If everything's fine, then you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have two Lipo Batteries:
  • One is operating at 11.1V.
  • Second one is operating at 3.7V
• We can change the voltage level from the properties panel, so double click on the Lipo battery to open its properties, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have 11.1V written in the Voltage text box, so here you can change the voltage level of these batteries.

• Now, let's design a simple simulation to understand how it works:

• So, I have simply attached a voltmeter with both of these lipo batteries, as shown in the above figure.
• Now, let's run our simulation and if everything's fine, you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• If you are working on a 12V project, then simply change the voltage level from the properties panel and use it in your project.

So, that was all for today. I hope you have enjoyed today's tutorial. If you have any questions, please ask in comments and we will help you out. Thanks for reading.. Take care. Bye !!! :)

Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing fine. In today's tutorial, I am going to share a new Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0. You should also have a look at its previous version i.e. Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V1.0. If you have worked on the previous version, it has only one soil moisture sensor in it, while in this library, we have added three soil moisture sensors.

First, we will have a brief introduction of the Soil Moisture sensor, then we will download the zip file containing Proteus Library files of Soil Moisture Sensor and finally, we will design a small simulation using these new sensors. So, let's get started:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	Arduino Uno	Amazon	Buy Now

What is Soil Moisture Sensor?

• Soil Moisture sensor is an embedded sensor, used to measure the moisture level of the soil.
• It is normally used in agricultural automation projects, i.e. controlling the water flow based on the moisture level of the soil.
• Soil Moisture sensors are available with both analog and digital outputs.
• They normally have a potentiometer embedded in them, for controlling the sensitivity of the sensor.

Before downloading the sensor's library file, let's first have a look at what's new in version 2.

Difference b/w V1.0 & V2.0

• We received many complaints about the big size of the Soil Moisture sensor(V1.0), so we have reduced their sizes in this new library(V2.0).

• The first version contains only 1 soil moisture sensor, while in V2.0 we have added three soil moisture sensors.
• The output of V1.0 was quite smooth, while in V2.0 we have made the output a bit fluctuating to make it more realistic.

Now, let's download the Proteus Library zip file for this sensor and simulate it in Proteus:

Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0

• First, we need to download the Proteus Library zip file, by clicking the below button:

Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0

• After downloading the zip file, extract it and open the folder named Proteus Library Files.
• You will find three files in this folder, named as:
  • SoilMoistureSensor2TEP.IDX
  • SoilMoistureSensor2TEP.LIB
  • SoilMoistureSensor2TEP.HEX
• Place these files in the library folder of your Proteus software.

Note:

• If you are facing problems with adding a library in Proteus 7 or 8 Professional, then have a look at How to add a new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• Now, open Proteus ISIS, and if you are already working on it, then restart it.
• In the components library, make a search for Soil Moisture Sensor, and you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• Let's place these three soil moisture sensors in the Proteus workspace:

• Quite pretty, aren't they? :)

Now let's design a small simulation, to have a look at its working:

Proteus Simulation of Soil Moisture Sensor

• As you can see in the above figure, each of these sensors has 4 pins in total, which are:
  1. Vcc: We need to provide +5V here.
  2. GND: We need to connect it to Ground.
  3. A0: It's the analog output pin, its value will increase as the moisture level of the soil will increase.
  4. TestPin: The voltage level of TestPin will decide the moisture level of the soil.

Why Test Pin is used?

• As it's a simulation, so we can't actually probe the sensor in real soil, so we are using this TestPin for testing purposes.
• The value of Test Pin can vary from 0 to 5V, so as the value of this Test Pin will increase, the sensor will consider the moisture level of the soil in increasing and thus its output will also increase. In simple words:
  • If TestPin is HIGH: Soil has maximum moisture level.
  • If TestPin is LOW: Soil is completely dry.
• We will place a potentiometer at TestPin to provide variable voltage for testing.

Adding Hex File to the sensor

• We have placed three library files of soil moisture sensor in the Library folder of Proteus, and if you have noticed, one of them is the .hex file.
• In order to operate this sensor, we need to add that hex file to our sensor.
• So, double click on the Soil Moisture sensor to open its Properties Panel.
• In the properties panel, we have a section named "Program File", here upload the hex file which we have downloaded, as shown in the below figure:

• After adding the hex file, click Ok to close the properties panel.
• Now, design a small simulation, as shown in the below figure:(I have added this simulation in the Proteus Library zip file)

• I have added the hex file in both of these soil moisture sensors.
• Now, let's run the Proteus Simulation and have a look at the output:

• As we change the value of the potentiometer(attached to Test Pin), the output of the sensor will change accordingly.

So, that was all for today. I hope this library will help embedded students in their engineering projects. If you have any suggestions/comments, please use the below comment form. Thanks for reading. Take care. Bye !!! :)

The consolidation of JLCPCB & EasyEDA

The core reason for Co-branding is to better serve the coming future of electronic products and the tech world. JLCPCB is known as a multilayer PCBs integrated circuits manufacturer, which owns 5 independent factories and an order-friendly global PCB company. EasyEDA is known as the world's first web-based EDA tool and cloud-based EDAtool. EasyEDA’s tech stability and maturity and JLCPCB’s great production scale are the strongest assets for the consolidation. The deep link of two integrates technical resources, computing resources, and operating resources for future challenges of mobile phone hotspots, free WIFI, and 5G, etc. The EasyEDA tech sector’s like-mindedness is a software tool to serve engineers, not driven by software tools. So Cloud-based features allow electronic engineers to browse the PCB design everywhere, during the nap of a business trip, when the nap of a vacation journey, when the way back home, anywhere, anytime to access your files easily. JLCPCB constantly pursues growth and progress. In the current technology world, people need to think big, then make big. Creativity and practice are what JLCPCB keeps doing. The supply of low-cost and high-quality PCBs allows JLCPCB to gain 800000+customers worldwide, so they assembled to face challenges together. EDA used to be the most profitable of the IC industry, and the practitioners are also the most knowledgeable and intelligent group. However,  with the low threshold for entrepreneurship, more and more people are joining the competition and finally, it becomes seriously competitive, but this urges EDA practitioners' skills to be refined. After decades of competition and annexation, a few EDA companies have now become dominant. The combination of EasyEDA and JLCPCB conforms to the trend, brings healthy competition to the industry, and provides stable financial and human resources for R&D. However, in-depth technology R&D can't be achieved via any quickness. Therefore, JLCPCB & EasyEDA has a consensus: they have to stably develop technology,  long and profoundly when some stakeholders pursue rapid tech development. This also makes EasyEDA and JLCPCB choose to be more closely integrated.

Division & Cooperation in the Technological World

The upgraded network technology foundation, the upgraded demands. Global division and collaboration is already the trend of product completion, which are carried out on the basis of internet-based products. internet-based products refer to tangible products or intangible services that use the Internet as a tool to meet customer’s needs and help to achieve commercial value. We can see Internet-based product logic from the two. Free and easy to use is the value of EasyEDA. JLCPCB's winning points are low price and convenience. Their multilayer PCBs manufacturing service accepts 1-6 layer boards which only cost $2(starting price). When customers need a powerful PCB layout and simulation capability with massive libraries of schematic components in order to push forward PCB mass production; When customers need comprehensive system solutions, which provides manufacturing processes Technology,  hi-tech intellectual property licenses, emerging technology knowledge, etc they are more appreciated. The consolidation of JLCPCB and EasyEDA become valuable. The final electronic products come from the global labor division, when the American engineer has finished his Gerber design on EasyEDA, one clicks to upload his file on the JLCPCB page, then waits for the local DHL staff to deliver the PCB to his door. Task division of design, production, and delivery links all. When the production link between countries no longer occurs after the final production but occurs at every stage of product research and development, manufacturing, marketing, and operation management, the whole production networks have shared the good result of high-tech industries, like the links between clients and JLCPCB & EasyEDA. Back to the PCB industry, there are three major characteristics of PCB and EDA industries, including industrial innovation, high demand for professionals, and prosperous M&A activities. M & A activity is the key to expanding market share and deepening the level of technology. Take Synopsys as an example. It was established in 1986. According to industry statistics, since the late 1990s, it has successively acquired more than 40 small EDA companies and silicon intellectual property companies. Now of course M&A activities get more common for this industry.1+1 may be greater than 2, and the same is true for customer groups and integrated technical resources. Now JLCPCB has 800,000 + customers, with EasyEDA tens of thousands of users every day, the combination of the two can bring convenience to clients, and can also make the development of the two profitable, tap non-overlapping customers, and experience new of each other's services. This is a manifestation of the progress of software and hardware cooperation and a symbol of the division and cooperation of technical products.

Cloud-based EDA, unlimited effort

EasyEDA was established in June 2010, 60 years after the first EDA. It is based on the web, with schematic capture, spice circuit simulation, and PCB layout tool for electronics engineers. The developers of EasyEDA, Dillon He, set out to create a PCB design software tool that provides comprehensive data and collaboration tools to help engineers and designers move from idea to product more easily and quickly, so EasyEDA was born. EDA is a process of transforming hardware principles into real objects,  it is more like a carrier to show the mindset. It is divided into two major branches: microelectronics and hardware boards. EasyEDA serves hardboard circuits, which are used for electronic watches, mobile phones, switchboards in the computer room, they all contain hardware boards. It insisted on cloud-based tools from the start and never changed. The concept of EasyEDA cannot be accepted by some people, who don’t trust their designs on the alien servers, or so-kind web-based services. The founder, Mr. He said: “ Perhaps EasyEDA needs to wait, wait for free WIFI widespread, wait for the speedy Internet, wait for everyone's copyright awareness, wait for everyone to accept the new model, and wait for the change of user habits.”  For the distrust of cloud file storage security, EasyEDA has promised if the tool is shut down they would open-source their code and provide adequate time to download files. “Therefore we can only serve those who have the same value.” He also pointed out. Engineers are always so cool! Mr. He sometimes is tender. “A loyal EasyEDA user expressed that he is a loyal user of cloud products. He will give priority to products that can be cloud-based. He firmly believes that the comprehensive advantages of cloud products are greater than the desktop stand-alone version. He trusts JLC’s professional team to protect my data. However, he needs a sense of security, and he needs to know that one day he will be able to open his design locally. Maybe this day will never come for me, but you'd better provide this function, although I may not use it."Therefore he decided to provide the function. When downloading the client-side, offline version and the online version offered. Project data for the offline version will not be sent to the EasyEDA’s server and kept by themselves; for the online version, while the files are saved to the EasyEDA server, it will also be saved to a personal computer with double insurance. The offline version is expected to serve just a few users among tens of thousands of users each day. They made such an endeavor to meet the needs of a sense of security.

Higher quality PCB, higher trust

JLCPCB is a global company that owns 5 independent factories, not in the shared factory. Since PCB manufacturing activities become more open, sharing, collaborative, and flexible, shared factories are used by some PCB companies who don’t have enough manufacturing capabilities or just play a middle role between PCB customers and PCB factories. It means when you order a PCB from a company that uses a shared factory, the PCB is produced in an unknown fab. Of course, we have to admit this new mode meets some consumer's needs when people don’t care where and how the PCB is produced. However, the board's reliability is very important to the end products, especially for electronic hardware products. The trust builds on the product quality when you upload your Gerber file on JLCPCB. They produce it in their own 5 big plants. Quality is the life of PCB, choosing trusted merchants and trusted merchants' factories is vital for the end product. How to perfectly cater to the needs of consumers and ensure the quality of service while also continuously improving, so that more people around the world can benefit? They keep an open and accepting attitude, listen to the needs of consumers: besides the PCB prototype, improving SMT services is also becoming more and more important for PCB consumers. JLCPCB just published the news of the JLCPCB SMT Road Map, they will support 80% of components assemble in LCSC in 2021, now is just 20%; they will support double sides assembly, now is just single side; they will support more quantity SMT assembly in the near future. 2021, is also a great year for JLCPCB SMT. The news gains a lot of good feedback on Twitter. Actually many people know JLCPCBfrom some famous makers, like GreatScott, AlexGyver, HacksmithIndustries, when they are using JLCPCB, what keeps you waiting?

Connect with the world

JLCPCB&EasyEDA is in line with international standards for in-depth research and development for software technology and hardware technology. The entire process needs electronic engineers’ participation, suggestions, modification, and re-research. They believe technology serves engineers or creators. Therefore, JLCPCB&EasyEDA reorganizes and integrates resources and starts anew to make greater progress, striving to meet the habits and preferences of more users, non-stop unique experience, Only then can their existence be valuable. JLCPCB&EasyEDA trust in long and stable joint effort can achieve in-depth technology, then you can believe in them. It is so-called Design, Make, Then trust”. JLCB&EasyEDA co&branding event. Get coupon & Join JLC&EDA Group

How to Increase EF Core Performance for Saving Multiple Entities?

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we will have a look at How to Increase EF Core Performance for Saving Multiple Entities? EF Core works well for simple CRUD operations but for saving multiple entities EF Core provides poor performance. So, today we will use a third-party EF Core extension named "Z.EntityFramework.Extensions.EFCore", designed by ZZZ Projects, which will increase the EF Core performance significantly. I will be using a BulkSaveChanges Method of this library which is specifically designed for saving bulk data in an SQL database.

ZZZ Projects is a trusted company and has designed numerous .NET libraries, a few having downloads in millions. So, you can completely trust this extension library.

• Here's a video for this tutorial, which will give you a practical demonstration of this project i.e. How to add this Library to your project and how to use this extension method BulkSaveChanges:

Before starting with the actual process, let's first have a look at What is EF Core?

What is EF Core?

EF Core is an Object Relational Mapper(ORM) and is used as a bridge between the ASP.Net Core application & its database. Thanks to EF Core, now there's no need to write complex SQL queries for database-related operations, instead, developers can easily perform all database CRUD operations in C# language(using EF Core). Although designed by Microsoft, but EF Core is a separate module and we can add it to our .NET application from the Nuget library.

Low Performance of EF Core

• ORM(i.e. EF Core) provides a simple instructions-set for database CRUD operations and proves very friendly to developers, but it has few drawbacks as well.
• One of the main disadvantages of EF Core is its low performance, which not only slows down your application but also increases the database interactions(cloud providers may charge extra).
• Moreover, as the number of data(you want to save in the database) increases, the EF Core performance decreases.

EF Core Performance for multiple Entities

• In a professional .NET application development, there come many scenarios where the developer needs to save multiple entities in the database i.e. user notifications, real-time messages etc.
• When multiple entities are saved using EF Core, it doesn't save them in a single SQL session.
• Instead, it takes multiple round-trips to the database, which increases the overall time for the data-saving process.

So, now let's have a look at How to increase the EF Core Performance for multiple entities by using BulkSaveChanges(provided by Z Extension), instead of SaveChanges(provided by EF Core):

What is BulkSaveChanges Method?

• BulkSaveChanges is a simple function, automatically generated by EF Core Extension Library and is used for saving multiple entities in the database.
• BulkSaveChanges increases the performance of EF Core by 3 to 4 times and its performance is exponential to a number of entities.
• First of all, you need to download this project designed in ASP.NET Core:

Download Asp.Net Core Project

• Open it in Visual Studio and first run the Migration commands for setting up the SQL database.

How to add EF Core Extension Library

• If you check the NuGet packages in the above project, you will find these four packages installed in it, shown in the below figure:

• You must be familiar with the first 3 NuGet packages, as they are used to add EF Core libraries in the .Net project.
• The fourth one is the NuGet package of EF Core extension Library, designed by ZZZ Projects.
• If you click on the Browse tab and make a search for "Z.EntityFramework", you will find results, as shown in the below figure:

• These NuGet packages are designed by ZZZ Projects, and from this list, I have installed the second one, named: Z.EntityFrameworkCore.Extensions.EFCore.

Methods offered by Z Extension Library

• After adding this NuGet package of ZZZ Projects, its methods will become readily available under the instance of DbContext class.
• I am going to discuss BulkSaveChanges Method only(in today's lecture) but it has a wide range of methods for improving the performance of DBContext class, used in different scenarios, depending on requirements.
• Here's a list of few other methods, offered by this EF Core Extension Library:

BulkSaveChanges Method to improve performance of EF Core

Now, let's have a look at the implementation of the BulkSaveChanges Method in our Asp.Net Core Application:

• In the Models folder, open the SubjectRepository.cs file and here you will find two methods, named:
  • Add1() Method: It will use the default SaveChanges() Method of EFCore.
  • Add2() Method: It will be using the new BulkSaveChanges() Method of EF Core Extension Library.
• Both of these methods are shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above code, it's too easy to use the BulkSaveChanges() method, as it's called on the same instance of DBContext class, on which I have called the default SaveChanges() method.
• Moreover, I have placed a stopwatch function around these methods to calculate the time taken by them, for saving 5000 entities in the database.

Now, let's save 5000 entities using these two methods, and look at the results:

SaveChanges vs BulkSaveChanges

•  I have tested these methods three times each and created a comparison table.
• In each of these testing trials, I have saved 5000 entities in the underlying SQL database.
• Here's the result of the comparison, SaveChanges vs BulkSaveChanges: (all these readings are in milliseconds)

• As you can see in the above comparison table, the BulkSaveChanges method is 3 to 4 times faster than the SaveChanges method.

For a practical demonstration of this project, watch the above video, where I have completely demonstrate How to add this Z extension Library to your project and how to use the BulkSaveChanges method to improve the performance of EF Core. So, that was all today, if you have any questions, please ask in the comments. Thanks for reading!!! :)

What is Stoichiometry? How it helps in Balancing Reactions?

The topic we are going to discuss today can be crowned as the most celebrated concepts in the field of Chemistry, the most celebrated amongst the chemists yet most hated amongst the students due to its complexity, who loves balancing chemical equations? Definitely no one! So cutting it short we are here to discuss " Stoichiometry ". The very first time I encountered this word years ago it felt like a tongue twister to me, let's learn to pronounce it first, stoichiometry is pronounced as "stoy- key-om-Et-tree", you would definitely learn to pronounce it well by the end of this discussion, keep trying! So, let's get started with Stoichiometry:

What is Stoichiometry?

• In a chemical reaction, different reactants react together in different quantities and generate products.
• For example, in the below chemical reaction, Hydrogen & Oxygen are reactants and they are producing water as a result of an exothermic reaction:

• As you can see in the above reaction,
  • Reactants: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 2 atoms of oxygen
  • Product: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 1 atom of oxygen.
• So clearly, there's a molecular difference between reactants & products and according to the Law of Conversation of mass:

"Mass of a system(chemical reaction) remains constant over time, if no energy enters or leaves the system."

• In simple words, the molecular mass of reactants must be equal to that of products and if it's not the case, then such reactions are called UnBalanced Reactions.

UnBalanced Reactions

• Unbalanced Reactions are also called Skeletal Reactions and provide information only about the type of ingredients & Products used in a chemical reaction.
• It doesn't give any information about the quantity of the reactants or the products.

Balanced Reactions

• A chemical reaction, which strictly follows the law of conservation of mass i.e. the molecular mass of reactants must be equal to that of products is called Balanced Reaction.
• For balancing a chemical reaction, numerical coefficients are used and are placed on the left side of the entity.
• Now let's balance the above unbalaced reaction to understand it completely, balanced reaction is shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, I have used Numerical values called Coefficients to balance the equation.
• Now, in this balanced reaction, we have an equal number of atoms in reactants and products, i.e.:
  • Reactants: 4 atoms of Hydrogen + 2 atoms of Oxygen.
  • Products: 4 atoms of Hydrogen + 2 atoms of Oxygen.
• These coefficients are simply multiplied by the number of atoms.
• This technique of balancing a chemical reaction is called Stoichiometry.

Advantages of Balancing a Chemical Reaction

• As we have seen in the above water reaction, once we have balanced the reaction, it got clear that we need 2 moles(molecules) of Hydrogen and 1 mole(molecule) of oxygen, if we want to produce 2 moles(molecules) of water.
• So, with the help of a balanced equation, a scientist can easily calculate the number of ingredients for producing a certain amount of product.

Now let's have a look at a proper definition of Stoichiometry:

Stoichiometry Definition

• Stoichiometry is a set of mathematical techniques, used for determining a quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical equation/reaction.
• The term stoichiometry has been derived from the two Greek words, the first one is “Stiochos” which means elements and the second one is “metry” which means measuring, so the word collectively means "Measuring Elements".
• It was coined by Jeremias Benjamin in 1972, in the first volume of his book Richter's Stoichiometry also known as the Art of Measuring the Chemical Elements.

Stoichiometric Coefficients:

• Coefficients are the whole numbers, written in front of the elemental symbols in the equation, indicating the number of moles or the number of molecules.
• If there is no coefficient in front of a symbol, then 1 is assumed to be the coefficient.

Now let's have a look at why do we need Stoichiometry in chemistry:

Why do we need stoichiometry?

• We need stoichiometry for two reasons, mentioned as follows:
  1. For balancing a chemical reaction.
  2. For conversions i.e. grams to moles & moles to grams.

Let's understand both of them in detail:

Balancing a Chemical Reaction

• There are no fixed rules for balancing a chemical reaction, it depends more on your analytical skills, but there are few tricks.
• While balancing a chemical reaction, always balance individual elements one by one, as in a water reaction, we first balanced oxygen and then hydrogen.
• First balance that element, which has the least occurrences in the reaction, as for water oxygen atoms appeared 3 times, while hydrogen atoms were 4 times.
• Try to balance single elements first, as balancing elements from a compound is bit difficult.
• But again as I said earlier, these are few tricks to ease the process, but it mainly depends on analytical skills and practice.
• Your equation is said to be balanced when it will have an equal number of atoms on both sides i.e. obeying the Law of conservation of mass.
• So, let's balance few reactions to understand How it works:

Stoichiometry Example1: Water Reaction

• I have already shown both unbalanced & balanced equations of water but now let's have a look at the steps taken to balance it.
• So, we have an unbalanced equation as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have an unbalanced equation, so we need to analyze, which element can be balanced easily.
• Clearly, we are using 2 atoms of oxygen in reactants but the product contains only 1 atom.
• So, we need to multiply the product by 2 so that, we could balance oxygen items, as shown in the below figure:

• We have balanced oxygen items in the above equation, but now in reactants, we are using 2 hydrogen atoms but in the product, we have 4 atoms.
• So, in order to balance hydrogen atoms, we need to multiply hydrogen reactant with 2 as well, as shown in the below figure:

• Now we have an equal number of atoms(of both hydrogen & oxygen) in reactants and product and we can say, we have a balanced equation now.
• So, if we want to produce 2 moles of water(36g molar mass), then we have to combine 2 moles of hydrogen(4g) and 1 mole of oxygen(32g).

Now let's have a look at another example:

Stoichiometry Example 2: Propane Reacts with Oxygen

• Now, lets have a look at another reaction, where Propane reacts with oxygen and generates carbon dioxide and water, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the Stoichiometry example, I have followed the above mentioned tricks.
• First of all, the point to notice is I have solved all elements individually, first Carbon, then Hydrogen and finally Oxygen.
• Moreover, I have Carbon first because it has appeared in two entities and was quite easy to balance.
• And in the last step, we got our balanced equation having an equal number of atoms on both sides of the reaction.

Stoichiometry Example 3

• Here's a quick example to show you that in complex equations, we may have to re-evaluate our coefficients, as shown in the below figure:

I hope you guys have completely understood the concept of balancing a chemical reaction. Always remember, whenever you are going to solve a stoichiometric numerical problem, you have to balance the chemical equation first, otherwise you won't be able to solve the problem correctly. It is a necessary evil! Don't skip it, okay? Now let's have a look at How to perform conversions from one unit to another using balanced equations.

Unit Conversions using Stoichiometry

In the previous section, we have seen How to balance a chemical reaction and now we will discuss How to make unit conversions of chemical elements using these balanced equations.

• Normally, the quantity of a chemical substance is measured using two different units, which are:
  1. Moles.
  2. Grams.

Moles Definition

• Mole is the SI unit for quantity/amount of a chemical substance and 1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³(Avogadro's no) atoms of that chemical substance.
• The term molecules and moles are used interchangeably, and if you ask me, mole is just the short form of the molecule.
• So generally, the number of molecules of a chemical substance, used in a chemical reaction is denoted by the unit called Mole(denoted as mol).
• As you can see in the below water reaction, 2 moles of Hydrogen are reacting with 1 mole of oxygen and producing 2 moles of water.

Now let's have a look at the grams definition:

Grams Defnition

• When chemical substances are measured using their molar/molecular mass, then the Grams unit is used, denoted by g.
• Molar mass can be defined as the mass of one mole of a substance in grams.”
• Again let's understand it with water reaction:

• So, in the above reaction, I have displayed both moles and grams, so if you want to use the grams unit then we can say that:
• 4g of hydrogen is reacting with 32g of Oxygen and producing 36g of water.
• You must have noticed that we have an equal number of mass(in grams) on both sides of the equation as the balanced equation must obey Law of conservation of mass.

Moles Vs Grams

The following table shows the difference between Moles & Grams:

ESP32 Module Features and Technical Specs
No.	Mole(mol)	Grams(g)
1	The Mole unit is used to count the number of entities(chemical substances) used.	Gram unit is used to measure the amount(molar mass) of chemical substance i.e. how much quantity is used?
2	Moles are normally integers	mass in grams could be a fraction.
3	Total moles of reactants may or may not be equal to that of products in a balanced chemical reaction.	The total mass(in grams) of reactants must be equal to that of products in a balanced chemical reaction.
4	Mole unit is used in theory mostly.

Molar Ratio

• As we have seen, Stoichiometry is the knowledge of balancing the chemical equations.
• These chemical reactions are actually giving us the ratio between reactants and products.
• Let's understand this ratio with water reaction:

• So, in water reaction, we have a ratio of 2:1:2 between Hydrogen, oxygen and water respectively.
• As this ratio is between moles of the reactants and products, thus it's called the Molar ratio.

Now let's have a look at How to make conversions between moles and grams using the molar ratio.

Conversions between Grams & Moles

There are four types of conversions that can be performed between these two units in stoichiometry, which are:

• Moles-Moles Conversion
• Grams-Moles Conversion
• Grams-Grams Conversion
• Moles-Grams Conversion

Grams-Grams Conversion is the most widely used one. Now let's solve few Stoichiometry problems to understand these conversions. These real-life problems will also help you understand the importance of stoichiometry calculations and how they are used in chemistry.

Stoichiometry Problems

In stoichiometry we come across a number of numerical problems that ask for the following calculations;

• Finding out the limiting reactant of a reaction.
• Calculating the actual yield of a reaction.
• Theoretical yield of a chemical reaction.
• Finding out the empirical formula of a compound after combustion analysis.

All these calculations are stoichiometric in nature as it involves the above-mentioned conversions. In this discussion, we are going to pick one problem from each of the above topics and I would help you solve and understand them in the best possible way. Let's get started!

Find Limiting Reactant using Stoichiometry

Limiting reactant can be defined as:

• A limiting reactant(also called a limiting agent) is a chemical substance/element, that takes part in a chemical reaction in a limited amount & controls the amount of product produced.

Many times, we are asked to identify the limiting reactant in a numerical problem, following is one of such problems:

Stoichiometry Problem Statement:

During a chemical reaction 3.2 moles of N₂ react with 5.4 moles of H₂ to form NH₃, how much amount of NH₃ can be formed in the process? Which one is the limiting reactant? How of the excess reactant would be left over after the consumption of the limiting reactant? Solution:

Step 1: Write the Balanced Equation of the chemical reaction:

• We will start by writing the balanced chemical equation for the above reaction

N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ? 2NH₃ (g)

Step 2: Determine the Limiting Reactant b/w N₂ & H₂

• We will now determine the amount of N₂ consumed by H₂.
• So, from above balanced equation, we have the molar ratio of 1:3:2 between nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia respectively.
• So, we can find the limiting reactant as shown in the below figure:

• As, we can see in the above calculations that 9.6 mol of H₂ Is required to fully consume 3.2 mol of N₂, but in the statement, we are only provided with 5.4 mol of H₂, so clearly H₂ is our limiting reactant here.
• Now, we will be calculating the total amount of N₂ consumed with the provided 5.4 mol of H₂, so:

3 mol of H₂ consumes = 1 mol of N₂

1 mol of H₂ consumes = 1/3 mol of N₂

5.4 mol of H₂ consumes = 5.4 × 1 / 3 mol of N₂ = 1.8 mol of N₂.

Step 3: Determine maximum product produced by the limiting reactant

• Next, we need to find the amount of product, that we can produce using these reactants.
• As we already know that H₂ is our limiting reactant, so simply we need to apply the molar ratio between H₂ and NH₃.
• For this, we can do the following calculation:

3 mol of H₂ produces = 2 mol of NH₃

1 mol of H₂ will produce = 2/3 mol of NH₃

5.4 mol of H₂ will produce = 5.4 × 2 / 3 mol of NH₃ = 3.6 mol of NH₃

• So, 3.6 mol of ammonia is the maximum amount, that can be produced with the number of reactants given in the problem statement.

Step 4: Determine the amount of excess reactant

• If you want to determine the amount of N₂ still left after the reaction, there is a simple formula for that i.e. number of moles given - number of moles used = amount of excess reactant left
• 3.2 mol - 1.8 mol = 1.4 mol of N₂ are left after the consumption of the limiting reactant.

Step 5: Conclude the results

The conclusion can be written as;

• H₂ is the limiting reactant
• N₂ is the excess reactant, so only 1.8 mol will be consumed and 1.4 mol will be left.
• 3.6 mol of NH₃ can be produced with the reaction of 5.4 mol of H₂ and 1.8 mol of N₂.

Calculating Actual Yield and Theoretical Yield

First, let's have a look at their definitions:

Yield Definition

• It is the amount of product formed during a chemical reaction.

Theoretical Yield

• The amount of stoichiometric product calculated on paper without any practical experimentation, we can also regard it as an estimated product.

Experimental/Actual Yield

• The actual amount of product formed during a chemical reaction on practical grounds.

Practical yield can be equal or less than the theoretical yield, most of the students ask why and how it happens? Here is a simple answer:

• We don't have ideal conditions of temperature and pressure in the industry
• There is a loss of reactants in the process of transferring, mixing etc.
• Mechanical losses are always there which can never be ignored.
• An impure reactant can add to the agony of the procurement team as well

Percentage yield

• Percentage yield is the percentage ratio of actual/experiment yield to the theoretical yield.
• It can be mathematically written as:

% yield = actual yield / theoretical yield × 100

Why we use this concept? You must be thinking why we need this simple percentage in our lives, let me tell you why! It is extremely crucial to industries either chemical or pharmaceutical, they calculate the amount of profit or loss through this method. You might have faced the discontinuation of your favorite soap or shampoo or bubble gum in your life, it was all due to the decrease in the %age yield of the product that was not good enough to continue because when a product has a lesser profit margin there is no other choice than to discontinue it! Production is highly dependent on this concept regarding it to be a success factor for a product to rule the market. It’s time for a numerical problem to help you better understand the concept!

PROBLEM STATEMENT

42 grams of hydrogen reacts with nitrogen to form 120g of ammonia, determine the percentage yield of the product formed during the reaction.

Step1: Write the balanced chemical equation

N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ? 2NH₃ (g)

 

Step 2: Convert grams into moles

• As the quantities are given in grams, so we need to convert them to moles first. So,

Moles of H₂= mass in grams / molar mass

= 42/2 = 21 moles

 

Step 3: Calculate NH3 Theoretical Yield

• Next, we need to calculate the moles of the product by comparing it with the reactant using a balanced chemical equation.
• So, the molar ratio between H₂ & NH₃ is 3:2, so:

3 mol of H₂ produces = 2 mol of NH₃

1 mol of H₂ will produce = 2/3 mol of NH₃

21 mol of H₂ will produce = 21 x 2/3 mol of NH₃ = 14 mol of NH₃

Convert moles into grams because the actual yield has been given in grams and units of two quantities to be compared must be the same.

Mass in gram of NH₃= number of mole × molar mass = 14 × 17= 238g

Step 4: Calculate Percentage Yield

• Now, calculate the percentage yield by putting the values into the given formula:

Actual yield of NH3 = 120 grams

% yield = actual yield ÷ theoretical yield × 100 

= 120 / 238 × 100

            = 50.5% is the calculated percentage yield of NH3

This is how we calculate the %age yield of a chemical reaction.

Calculating Empirical formula with Stoichiometry

As we are well aware of combustion, how and why it happens, it's time to solve the stoichiometric problems related to combustion analysis in which students are mostly asked to find empirical formulas. The empirical formula is different from the molecular formula, don't confuse both with each other here's why! “Empirical formula can be defined as the simplest ratio of atoms or elements present in a compound” Example: The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 meanwhile the empirical formula is CH. Features of Empirical Formula:

• Contains the most simplified ratio of the moles of elements making a compound
• It is simply a ratio, not an exact number or amount of atoms or molecules making a compound.
• Determined by weight percentages by converting them into grams.
• It is not commonly used in experimental schemes as compared to molecular formulas.

Features of Molecular Formula:

• It is the actual number of atoms or molecules forming the compound
• We calculate it after the calculation of the empirical formula
• It is a by-weight representation of every constituent particle making the molecule.
• It is commonly used in chemical reactions and stoichiometric calculations
• The molecular formula is always a multiple of the empirical formula; we can calculate empirical formula by a simple calculation at glance.

NUMERICAL PROBLEM

• A compound is composed of 52.14% of carbon, 34.7% oxygen and 13.13% of hydrogen by mass. Given that the molar mass of the compound is 138.204 g/ mole, Calculate The empirical formula and molecular formula.

Step 1: Convert percentages into grams

• Carbon = 52.14g
• Hydrogen =13.13g
• Oxygen=34.7g

Step 2: Convert grams into moles

• For carbon:

no of moles = mass in grams/ molar mass

52.14 = mole / 12 g per mole = 4.34 moles

• For hydrogen:

no of moles = mass in grams / molar mass = 13.13 / 1 = 13.02 moles

• For oxygen:

no of moles = mass in grams / molar mass = 34.73/ 16 = 2.17 moles

 

Step 3: Dividing with a common denominator

• Divide the number of moles of all 3 atoms with the lowest number of moles obtained:

Number of moles for Carbon =4.34 moles/ 2.17= 2

Number of moles of hydrogen= 13.13/2.17=6

Number of moles of oxygen = 2.17/2.17 =1

Step 4: Setup your Empirical formula

• C₂H₆O is our empirical formula

Step 5: Calculate the molecular formula

• Add up and calculate the atomic mass of each element

2C + 6 H + O

= 2×12 + 6× 1.008 + 16 = 46.08

Molar mass/mass in grams = 138/46 = 3

Multiply 3 with the empirical formula subscripts

So the molecular formula is C₆H₁₈O₃

  This is how we calculate the empirical formula, summarizing it;

• Convert %age into grams
• Then convert grams into moles afterward
• Divide the moles with the least amount of moles obtained
• The digit obtained is the empirical formula!

Summing up, stoichiometry is hard to understand at first but practice can make it easier for you, have patience and don't fret, learn the formulas by heart and efficiently rearrange them to extract the desired entity which is missing! See you soon with the next topic, good day!