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What is Operational Amplifier?

Hello friends, i hope you all are fine and enjoying. Today i am going to explain a very simple but very important tutorial which is named as what is operational amplifier? Operational Amplifier or commonly known as op-amp is a voltage amplifying device. The output of op-amp is much much larger as compared to the potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifier has much importance in today's electronic projects and it is also known as a fundamental building block of the analogue electronic circuits. Operational amplifiers were invented a long time ago and they ere also used in computers of old age. In those computers the function of operational amplifiers was to perform mathematical operations.

Operational amplifiers have a large no of applications and are most commonly use to perform some electronic operations like signal conditioning. When signals are transmitted over a long distances and what mostly happens is the strength of the signal is weakened. and some noise and disturbances are also included in it. to overcome these issues, we use repeater circuits and after some times the amplitude of signal is again boosted up with the help of operational amplifier. Similarly op-amp are also used for filtering of the signal. They are also used in logic designed projects to perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. The reason why operational amplifiers are much popular and are widely used in digital electronic circuits is that, they possess versatility.

Above was a little introduction about operational amplifier, its working and its applications. Now lets explain some other parameters of operational amplifiers which are given as below:

Pin configuration of operational amplifier

Operational Amplifier has major 3 pins. Among these 3 pins, 2 pins are reserved for input and these pins are of much High Impedance. One input of the operational amplifier is known as inverted input and it is marked as negative sign (-) while the other pin of the operational amplifier is known as non-inverting input and it is marked as positive sign (+). Both these inputs have High impedance. The third terminal of the operational amplifier is its output pin and it is of Low impedance. You can also see the pin configuration of op-amp in the feature image of this tutorial.

Characteristics of an op-amp

Operational amplifier is a very important amplifier and used as a building block in various electronics projects. Op-amp possess the following features:

The open loop gain of the differential amplifier is Infinite. Formula to calculate gain is:

G = V(out)/V(in)

Now if we are using the operational amplifier in open loop condition then, the input voltages 'V(in)' will becomes zero and the Gain will become infinite.

In op-amp there is an input impedance between both terminals of the operational amplifier. In OFF condition, the value of this impedance is much HIGH and mostly it is taken as 'infinite'. The reason to kept such a high value is to permit any current to flow between the input terminals of the op-amp.
For a differential operational amplifier input offset voltages are kept zero. This also permits any current to flow.
A very important feature of the operational amplifier is that we have a large no of voltage range, which can appear at the output terminal of op-amp. Since op-amp are designed to amplify the voltages up to a wider value, that's why we can say that infinite values of voltages are available at output terminal of operational amplifier.
When AC voltages are applied at its input terminals then, op-amp is capable to perform zero shift. Reason is that in electrical, we have various instrument like Transformer, which gives us the phase shift at output voltages. And the output voltages possess a different phase angle as compared to input voltages.
Operational amplifier have no impedance connected to its output terminals and we can say that it has zero or negligible impedance.
The operation of op-amp is without any kind of noise. The operation of op-amp is noise proof and no problems occurs during its operation.

Operation of Op-Amp

Operational amplifiers have 2 differential inputs which are named as 'Inverting' and 'non-inverting' inputs. In actual case the operational amplifier only amplifies those inputs difference which is applied between its input terminals. The output generated at its terminals can be calculated by the formula given below:

V(out) = G(o.l) {(V+)-(V-)}

In the above formula you can see that V(out) represents the output voltages which appears at the output terminal of operational amplifier.
G(o.l) is the open loop gain of the operational amplifier.
V+ are the voltages applied to the non-inverting input of op-amp.
V- are the voltages applied to the inverting input of op-amp. Generally ground is connected at this pin.

Applications of Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifiers have a large no. of applications and some of them are given below as:

Operational amplifiers are widely used in designing of basic and also advanced electronic projects. The use of operational amplifier as a building block in various projects allows us to get our output much pure and cleaner. The word cleaner emphasis on the part that the other circuit elements like resistance, capacitance, inductance etc, effects the output of the circuit and they also distort it.
The biggest application of the operational amplifier is 'voltage comparator'. In order to use op-amp as a comparator, we design a circuit without any feedback. To use op-amp as a comparator gives us the opportunity to get wider range of output voltages and also state switching is done in a faster way, which means it can go from ON to OFF state within no time.
Op-amp can also be used to design a level detection circuit in terms of voltages. For example if you connect the input or the reference voltages of the circuit to one of the input of the op-amp then, it will start behaving as an voltage level detection circuit.
Op-amp are commonly used in radio transmission circuits. They are able to amplify the output many times, that's why they are preferred for signal transmission.
Op-amp have wide applications in digital electronics and are commonly used to design filter circuits, differential amplifiers and some integration based circuits.
Op-amp are also commonly use to design ADC (analog to digital converters) and also DAC (digital to analog converters).
Op-amp are used as a major element in designing voltage clamping circuits and oscillators.
An interesting application of op-amp is that they are also used to design analogue calculators and some similar electronic products.

Alright friends, that was all from today's tutorial about operational amplifiers. In the coming tutorials, i will also explain some practical applications of operational amplifiers. If you have any questions then, feel free to ask in comments and i will try my best to solve the issue. Till next tutorial Take Care!!! :)

What is 555 Timer?

Departments:

Components:

Softwares:

Proteus

Hello friends, i hope you all are fine and enjoying. Today i am going to share a new tutorial in which I am gonna explain What is 555 timer? We all know about 555 timer, which is an 8-pin IC (integrated circuit), most commonly used in electronic projects, built now a days. As you can see fron its name that it is a timer and designed to generate PWM.

In today's tutorial i am going to explain, what's hidden inside this 555 timer IC and what is 555 timer. A 555 timer is a much compatible electronic device and the biggest feature of this IC is that it able to work on both analogue and digital techniques. Now if we simply consider the output of the 555 timer then, at any particular time, this timer has only 1 definite state. Which means at any time, it will be either ON or OFF. It is not possible that its output is ON and OFF simultaneously. A new invention of 555 timer has also been discovered which is named as 556 timer. 556 is in fact a Dual version of 555 timer and it contains 2 555 timers in a single IC. 556 is a 14 pin IC. Now you will think that 555 timer is a pin IC and as i said that 556 contains two 555 timers then, it should have 16 pins. The answer to this question is that, when two 555 timers are connected to each other then the VCC and GND of both ICs is made common so, we have 14 pins instead of 16. Now let's move towards the basic theme of our tutorial. In this tutorial i will be explain the steps, the pin configuration of 555 timer, It's different modes and project applications.

Internal Design of 555 Timer

Before going into details of what is 555 timer, let's first come to the internal design of a 555 timer. The outer shape of the 555 timer may look like very simple but there is a complex mechanism hidden inside that small IC. A 555 timer contains 25 transistors, 15 resistors and 2 diodes, which are connected to each other in a very complex manner. An interesting thing to know here is that all these components are embedded on a single small silicon chip. Some other series of 555 timers are also available in market like NE555 timer, which we commonly use in our engineering or electronic projects. And the second series is SE555. SE555 series was designed for military purposes. These operating temperature ranges of both NE555 ans SE555 are given below as:

NE555 is mostly used for basic level projects and such high level accuracy is not demanded in it so it is capable to operate from 0 ~ 70 degree Celsius.
SE555 was designed for military applications and it is used in those projects where high precision is required. The operating temperature of this IC is -55 ~ +125 degree Celsius.

Pin configuration of 555 Timer

Let's have a look at pin configuration to know what is 555 timer. As I described earlier that 555 timer has total 8 pins. As i described that 555 timer is a multipurpose IC and it is capable to perform variable function. So through some proper arrangement of connections, we can made this IC to do different tasks. Now i will explain the every pin no. and its purpose so that we know the answer to our main question what is 555 Timer ??? :)

The pin designated as pin#1 is GND pin. This pin is used to provide reference voltage or ground to 555 timer.
The pin designated as pin#2 is TR pin. It is used for triggering of 555 timer. The operating voltages of 555 timer is 4.5V ~ 15V. When the operating voltages exceeds 5V then, the 555 timer triggers and it generated output or we can say that now it has crossed that limit above which it will generate output.
The pin designated as pin#3 is the output pin of 555 timer. Through this pin, the output of 555 timer goes to the external circuit. The output depends on the purpose for which you are using 555 timer. For example if you are using your 555 timer to generate PWM then its output will vary. Sometimes it will go High and some time it will go Low.
The pin designated as pin#4 is Reset pin of 555 timer. If you look closely on the first feature image of the tutorial then, you yourself will understand that it is a NOT function. Which means that in order to reset the 555 timer you will have to give '0' at that pin and after the compliment it will become High and 555 timer will 'Reset' .
The pin#5 of 555 is 'CTRL' pin. It is in fact a control pin of 555 timer. This pin gives us the direct access to the internal voltage divider of the 555 timer, which is fabricated inside that small silicon chip. We can divide the voltages according to our output requirements.
The pin#6 is named as 'THR' pin of the 555 timer. For the supply voltages, 555 timer has kept a reference value for them. For example when the supply voltages exceeds 5 volts then, the this pin becomes activated and the 555 timer starts to generate output or it sends data to its output pins.
Pin#7 is named as 'DIS' of the 555 timer. This pin is in fact the discharge pin of 555 timer and used to discharge the capacitors between intervals. This pin has the biggest advantage when, we are generating PWM through 555 timer.
The last pin is pin#8 and it is designated as 'VCC' . This is the supply pin of 555 timer. Source is connected at this pin and as i have already explained that the supply voltages range for 555 timer is 4.5V ~ 15V, but generally it triggers above 5 volts.

Modes of Operation - What is 555 Timer ???

In order to know what is 555 Timer, we should have a look at its modes of operation. 555 timer has 3 major modes of operations. All these modes have there own applications and advantages. All the 3 modes are explained in below:

Astable Mode of 555 timer:

From the name of this mode 'astable mode', you can understand that, in this mode, we don't have any stable output of 555 timer. While operating in this mode, the output will be continuously fluctuating and we will be obtaining a square wave form on the output pin of the 555 timer. To operate the 555 timer in Astable mode, you will have to draw the following circuit, which is shown in the image below:

Astable mode is also used to flash lamps and leds. A very similar project named as Sequential LED blinking using 555 timer has also been uploaded by our team. In that project 555 timer was again being used in astable mode.

Monostable Mode of 555 timer:

In this mode of operation the 555 timer gives only one output pulse in addition to the intentional trigger input. For example if you will press the button then, 555 timer will produce a output pulse and its length remains constant until you again press the button and the 555 timer will generate another pulse. The circuit to use 555 timer in monostable mode is shown in the image given below:

Monostable mode of 555 timer has wast application. In this state it is used as a timer, touch switches.
The biggest example of this mode is to generate PWM. If you recall one of my previous tutorial which was Angle control of servo motor using 555 timer, then at that stage we were using a 555 timer to generate a PWM and through this PWM, we were controlling the angle of micro servo motor.
This mode is also used for capacitive measurement and also for missing pulse detection.

Bistable Mode of 555 timer:

The third and the last mode of operation of 555 timer is to use it in bistable mode. This thing is understood from its name 'Bistable' which means this circuit will have 2 stable states, which we are going to control. The circuit diagram to operate a 555 timer in bistable state is shown in the image given below:

The above shown circuit is of bistable mode of 555 timer.
As you can see in the above figure, we have 2 push buttons. One is connected to 'THR' pin and the other is connected to 'TRIG' pin of 555 timer.
When we will press the 'TRIG' button, which means that we have connected the trigger state to ground and its state has become LOW. By doing that the output of 555 timer will become High.
On the other hand, when i will press the 'RESET' button then 'THR' pin of 555 timer will be grounded and the output of 555 timer will become LOW.
In this way we have made the 555 timer to work in 2 different states and that's why it is called Bistable mode of operation of 555 timer.

If you wanna read more about 555 Timer then you must check below simulations on 555 Timer:

Alright friends, that was all from today's post. I hope you have learned something new today and have got your answer for our first question what is 555 timer and if you have any questions then please ask in comments and i will try my best to resolve the issue. Till next tutorial Take Care !!! :)

Getting Started with Arduino Software

Departments:

Microcontrollers:

Arduino Uno

Softwares:

Arduino IDE

Hello friends, i hope you all are fine and enjoying in life. On a friends request, today i am going to share a new tutorial which is 'Getting Started with Arduino Software'. Previously i have uploaded a large no of project tutorials made on 555 timers and some MATLAB based Simulations. Now we are going to touch the next level and from now on we will work on mostly projects containing Arduino microcontroller.

To get started with Arduino microcontroller, we first need to learn the operating software of Arduino microcontroller. This tutorial is very informative and i will be using Arduino software 1.0.5. It is a very basic level software and very easy to learn. IF you have already worked on Arduino software then you don't need to go through it. This tutorial is only for begineers who have just bought the Arduino board and don't know wht to do with it. :)

This software is very user friendly. There are two versions of Arduino software available on theArduino official site. One isexe file which you need to install in your computer. While the second version is a simple rar file and you don't have to install the 'exe' file in your computer. You only copy the software at a particular folder and when you double click on it, it automatically starts to run. I will be explaining this tutorial in various parts. We will see all the options available in main menu and their functioning. Now i think we should move towards the actual working of the software and see how it woks and what are its control parameters.

Getting Started with Arduino Software

First of all copy the Arduino software folder where you can easily access it. For example, copy the folder on desktop of your computer.
Double click the folder and the next window will show all the sub-folders, which contains the libraries, hardware tools, references and all other things.

Note:

If you haven't bought your Arduino UNO yet, then you can buy it from this reliable source:

That window is also shown in the image given below:

The above image is showing all the sub-folders and and the Ardunio running application.
The above folder is showing the examples, drives, hardware, libraries, references, tools of the Arduino software.
When you will double click on the icon named as 'ardunio' then arduino software will start to run.
The next window which will open is shown in the image given below:

A very important thing to note is that when we write code in Arduino software window then, it is called a sketch.
This software automatically gives the name to the code, which you are going to write.
For example i have open the command window of Arduino software, then it saves every sketch with that particular date on which you are gonna write that sketch.
Since today is May 13, 2015 and this software has automatically saved the sketch with today's date.
Now coming towards menu bar, we have 5 options. I will explain all of them one by one.

File Menu Description

When you will single click the 'File' button then, a new window will open which is shown in the image given below:

This list is showing all the components which are encoded in 'File' button.
First option is 'new' and it will open a new window or new sketch. Next is 'open' and it will open the file or sketch which you will select and will try to open in Arduino software.
Next options are 'sketch book' and 'examples'. When you will click the examples button then it will open the Arduino libraries.
The Arduino libraries are shown in the inage given below:

This option will give all of the Arduino libraries. Arduino libraries are very useful in learning the basic code of Arduino.
For starters, you can go to the first option which is, '01. Basics' and it will give you some libraries of that projects which are very easy to understand.
You can simply click on any option and the code will automatically load into Arduino software.
Next options are 'close', 'save' , 'save as'. These options are very simple and every user is aware of these options.
Next option is 'upload'. It is very important option and it will load the particular code into Arduino sketch file.
Next option is of 'upload using programmer'. This option uploads the code into Arduino sketch which is written in some other software.
Next option is of 'page setup'. It gives you the options about alignment of the page and what size of sketch you want to keep.
Then comes the 'print' option and 'preferences'. When you will click on 'Preference' option then a new window will open and this window is shown in the image given below:

This window will open and it will be showing sketckbook location. where you wish to save all your sketches. We will give it location only once and afterwards it will automatically save the file at that particular location.
You can also select the language, in which Arduino sketch will be written and the font size can also be selected.
This option also gives the check flag. For example either you want to update or Arduino software version or you tends to use the existing software and many other options.
The last option in file menu is 'Quit'. By clicking on this option, Arduino software will close and the sketch which is running at that particular time will stop.

Edit Menu Description

After file menu then comes the 'Edit' menu. When you will single click on that icon then, a new window will open, containing all the options which are ancoded in 'Edit' menu.
That new window is shown in the image given below:

The first 2 options in Edit menu are 'Undo' and 'Redo'. If accidentally something goes wrong then, you will press undo button and problem will be eliminated.
Redo is the opposite of Undo option.
Next options are 'cut' and 'copy'. Nearly all users are aware of their functions.
The next option is 'copy from forum'. It will copy the sketch from a particular forum and will automatically save it into sketch window of Arduino software.
The very option is 'copy as HTML'. This option is used at that place where, you want to upload your sketch or code.
After writing you sketch, you just single click on this button and it will automatically convert the sketch language into HTML language and then you can easily upload it.
Next option is of 'paste'. You copy the sketch from some other folder and you can 'paste' it in this sketch menu. and you can easily compile it.
Next to paste option we have 'select all' option. Once you click on this option and the whole sketch will be selected. It's upto you either you want to copy it or whatever you want to do with the sketch.
The next option is very important which is 'comment/un-comment'. For those people who have done the coding before and are aware of the basics it is a simple options.
You bring the curser to any particular line and when you will first click on this button then, it will be commented. Which means physically this line is written in the code but logically it has no importance anymore.
to avail this particular line, you will again click on that particular line and then it will be 'un-comment'.
After un-commenting the line, now you can use it in code.
Next option is 'increase indent', by single clicking on this option you will observe that the width of blinking curser has been increased.
This is also very interesting feature in looking and also very beneficial for those people who have a little weak eye-side.
And if you are not comfortable with this feature then, don't worry we also have a secondary feature for it.
Then you will click on the next option named as 'Decrease indent' and it will automatically decrease the width of the curser and it will start to look like as before.
The next option is very interesting and it is to find anything within your sketch.
When you will click on that option, a new window will open which is shown in the image given below:

In this window you can see that we have no of options. First bar is of find.
Write in the first bar whats actually you want to find.
And if you think something has gone wrong and you want to make changes in your code, you just simply write that things in 'replace with' menu and the whole code will be changed accordingly.
Next options in the edit menu are 'find next' and 'find previous'. When you write something in find menu and the software finds it for you.
Now if you want to find what's written next to those lines, you just simply click on that options and it will show whats next to that thing in sketch.
Similarly you can also find whats written previous to that thing in our sketch.

Sketch Menu Description

After edit menu we have 'Sketch Menu' in the list. When you will click on that option then, a new window will open which is shown in the image given below:

In sketch menu we have total 4 options.
The first option is 'verify/compile'. If you have written a code and when you will click on this option, it will verify the whole code and it will compile it and if there is no error then, the sketch will start running.
Next option is of show sketch folder. By clicking on that icon, we will access that particular folder in which sketch has been saved.
Next option is of 'Add file' and if you want to add any particular file in your sketch, you just simply click on that option and that file will be added in your sketch.
The last option in sketch menu is very very important and it will enables you to 'import library' into your sketch.
When you will click on that button then, a new window will open which is shown in the image given below:

As you can see in the above shown image that in this software there are a large no of built in libraries and if you need to import any library in your sketch then, you can easily import it.

Tools Menu Description

The next option in the main menu is 'Tools'. In order to explore it you just simply click on it and a new window will open, which is shown in the image given below:

The very first option in 'sketch menu' is auto format and it will automatically give format to the sketch.
Next are Archive Sketch, Fix encoding and reload.
The most important option in tools menu is 'select board'. By clicking on this option a new window will open which is shown in the image given below:

You can see that we have a large no of options available here .
Its your choice to choose that Arduino board which you are going to use in your project.
Next option is of programmer and when you will click on this button then a new window will open, which is shown in the image given below:

You can see from here we can select that which type of programmer we are going to use in our project.
The default setting for this version is AVRISP, as shown in the above image.
The last option in tools menu is Burn Boothloader and the beauty of Arduino software is that it is capable to burn the code into its micro controller itself and no external burner is required for this purpose.

Help Menu Description

This is the last option in menu and when you will click on it then a new window will open which is shown in the image given below:

The help menu of Arduino software is very user friendly and it gives you ease to learn the software and to do something new.
You can see that the very first option is 'getting started' and when you will click this option it will guide you about the features of the Arduino software. How we are going to use it and what are its basics?
Other options are also related to help and are much informative, if you are writing a particular sketch and at any stage if you don't know what to do the next then, don't worry, Help will guide at every step.
Now coming towards next menu, which is below the main menu, it has 5 major icons, which are shown in the image given below:

In the above image you can see that, we have 5 major icons.
The icon numbered a '1' is of 'verify'. After writing the whole code, you just simply click on that icon and it will verify the whole sketch and if there is any error then it will also generate error.
The icon numbered as '2' is to upload the sketch into your micro controller.
The icon numbered as '3' is of 'New'. By clicking on that icon a new menu will open and it will allow you to write a new sketch in it.
The icon numbered as '4' is of 'open'. When you wish to open a existing file in your present code, you just simply click on that.
The icon numbered as '5' is of 'save'. When you have written a particular sketch, you simply click on that and that sketch will be saved automatically.
The last icon which is numbered s '6' is of serial monitor and after writing the whole code you just simply click on that and it will monitors the whole sketch thoroughly step by step.
if any error will present at any stage then it will generate error.

Alright friends, that was all from today's post. Today's tutorial was very informative so i conclude that you hve learned something new today. Till next tutorial Take Care !!! :)

11 Level 3-phase Cascaded H Bridge Inverter

Departments:

Communication Engineering

Softwares:

MATLAB

Buy This Project

Hello friends, i hope you all are fine and enjoying. In this post i am going to share a new project tutorial, in which we will see how to design an 11 Level Cascaded H Bridge Inverter. If you recall my previous tutorial, in which we saw the design and working applications of 11 Level 3-phase Capacitor Clamped Inverter, then you can see its exactly the same project but only we are having a different approch in it, instead of using Capacitor clamped we are using cascaded H bridge Inverter in this project.

In this project we again are going to design an inverter but the only difference is The Implementation Technique. In that project we used Capacitor Clamped technique to get High Voltages inverted AC and now in this project, we will use Cascaded H-Bridge technique to design an Inverter. We have designed this Cascaded H bridge Inverter project in Simulink MATLAB. So i will explain this project tutorial in steps. First of all we will discuss the block diagram of the project, which we have made in Simulink. Then we will discuss the internal structure and the components which are implemented in the block diagram. And in the end we will see the applications of the cascaded H-Bridge inverters. I think this was enough for introduction and Now let's get practical and without wasting any time i think we should move towards the designing of the cascaded H Bridge 3-phase inverter.

11 Level 3-Phase Cascaded H Bridge Inverter

A cascade H Bridge Inverter is a power electronic device, built to synthesize a desired AC voltage from several level of DC voltages.
Cascaded H Bridge inverter can be implemented by using only a single DC source or capacitors or multiple DC sources.
A standard cascade multilevel inverter requires 'n' DC sources to produce '2n+1' levels.
The beauty of this system is that it can allow us to gain the desired levels of AC without using any type of Transformer.
It allows us to simultaneously maintain the DC voltage level of the DC source and choose a fundamental frequency switching pattern to produce a nearly sinusoidal AC output.
The block diagram of the Cascaded H Bridge Inverter designed in Simulink MATLAB is shown in the image given below:

From above figure, you can see that we have on the extreme left side we have inputs of the systems and they are numbered as 'pulse'.
Since we are going to design a multilevel inverter, which is a 11 Level inverter and to get that much levels, we also need multiple DC inputs.
In this system, we have 30 DC inputs and they are numbered as 'pulse1-pulse30'.
From the title of the project, you can understand that we are going to design a 3-phase inverter and for that we must have 3 control units to get three phase voltages.
All the inputs are going to three big blocks which are named as ' Cascaded H-Bridge Inverter'. If you double click on that block then, a new window will open which will show the internal mechanism of this big block.
This window is shown in the image given below:

The above figure is very important and it is showing what actually is happening in that block. Since the components encrypted in each block are large so the above figure is showing half of the components.
10 inputs are connected to each block and in the above shown block we have 5 inputs.
Every input is connected to a H shape bridge. In every H-shaped bridge, we have 4 sub-blocks. In order to under the mask of the sub-blocks, Double click on them and a new window will open, which will be representing the internal structure of sub-block.
That small window is shown in the image given below:

Now from the above figure, you can see that every sub-block contains an ideal IGBT, Gto or MOSFET and antiparallel diodes.
In these H-bridges we have implemented MOSFET transistor for switching. Reason is that they have mush fast response and are capable to perform switching at high speed.
Below are some parameters of transistors, which are fabricated in sub-blocks.
An important thing to note here is that for MOSFET 'Snubber Resistance (Cs)' is infinite in OFF state. This is because in OFF state it doesn't allow the current to pass through it.
Once MOSFET is triggered then it will keep on conducting and after that we will have to stop it manually.
Now if you again focus the first block diagram then, you will observe that each block is giving only value of phase voltages at its output.
From three blocks, we get three phase voltages and then to measure these voltages, we have 2 types of measuring devices.
First type of voltmeter will measure the phase voltages and you can see that all the three phases are connected to that instrument.
Phase voltage is the potential difference between a single phase and neutral wire. Since no neutral wire is connected to this instrument and the meter will take the system's neutral wire to measure the voltages.
The other meter measures the Line voltages. Line voltages are the potential difference between any two phases. At our meters input we have Line Voltages like AB, BC and CA.

RESULTS

We have connected two different types of voltmeters in our system. One will give the graphical representation of phase voltages and the other will give the graph of Line voltages.
The graph of phase voltages is given below in the image:

The above graph is representing the phase voltages of all the three phases, which we have generated in our system.
You can see that all the three phases are at an angle of 120 degrees to each other.
The graph of line voltages is shown in the image given below:

The above graph is showing the 3-phase line AC voltages.
You can see that some cornered square wave is obtained at output. Corners are appearing in output wave due to switching of MOSFET transister, we have used in our project.
A proper filter circuit can eliminate this flaw and a fine AC can been obtained at output.

Alright friends, that was all from today's post. I hope you guys have enjoyed this H Bridge Inverter. If you have any question then ask in comments and i will try my best to resolve the issue. For more tutorials stay tuned. Till next tutorial Take Care !!! :)

Analysis of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of AC Signal

Departments:

Communication Engineering

Softwares:

MATLAB

Hello friends, hope you all are fine and enjoying. Today I am going to share a very interesting tutorial which is Analysis of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of AC signal. I will try to explain this tutorial in parts. I will explain the code step by step and at every step we will see that what are the purpose of commands, which are written in that particular code. Before doing that first of all let me explain what is meant by Pulse Width Modulation.

Pulse Width Modulation or PWM is a technique which is used for getting Analog Results with digital means. We can say that some Digital Control or some Electronics algorithm is used to generate square waves. Square wave is in fact a signal which is generated through switching between ON & OFF states. There are no of ways to generate PWM. For example in modern electronics projects PWM is generated through some type of micro controllers or 555 Timers. If you recall my previous project tutorials, in which I have generated PWM through 555 timer. Since in this tutorial we are working with-in MATLAB premises so we will only discuss CODE and no hardware design involved in this tutorial. Now without wasting any time, I think we should move towards the CODE of the project. Stay tuned and believe me you will learn something new from this project.

You should also read:

Analysis of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of an AC Signal

First of all open your MATLAB software and a command window will appear. Now first thing to do is to clear the command window and remove all the previous variables or functions from MATLAB.
This is done through MATLAB language and we have commands to do this. The commands are given below:

clc clear all disp('Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of AC Signal') disp(' ')

'clc' and 'clear all' command will clear the command window and remove all the variables already existing.
Then the next command is 'disp(' ')' , and this command is used to display anything in command window. In dispaly command i have written the title of my project, which is "Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of AC Signal" .
Now coming towards part 2, which is to enter some information from user side. Since we are analyzing the PWM of AC signal and we need to enter the data of that particular signal, which we are going to analyze.
The code to do all this is given below:

Vrin=1; f=input('The frequency of the input supply voltage, f = '); Z=1; ma=input('the modulation index,ma, (0<ma<1), ma = '); phi=input('the phase angle of the load in degrees = '); Q=input('The number of pulses per half period = ');

The first command is 'Vrin' which is RMS value of the supply voltage in Per Unit. As you know that the maximum value of Per Unit is one, so i have kept its value equals to 1.
In the next steps, you can see that i have given the 'input' command. This command is used at that place if we need data from external source, which means if user will enter that data according to the input signal.
As you can see in the above code that Firstly it is asking frequency then comes the variable 'Z', which is load impedence in per-unit and we have kept its value 1.
'ma' is the modulation index and its value varies from 0 to 1.
'phi' is the phase angle of load in degrees.
'Q' is the no. of pulses per half period of the given cycle. MATLAB code will ask these values from user to enter them manually according to the that signal, which is under consideration.
Coming towards the Third part of the CODE, which is to calculate load parameters. The parameters of the load signal which we have entered in the above commands (part 2).
MATLAB Commands to calculate phase angle, Resistance and Inductance of the the load are given below:

phi=phi*pi/180; R=Z*cos(phi); L=(Z*sin(phi))/(2*pi*f);

'phi' is the load phase angle in degrees. while the other 'pi' is a built-in MATLAB function. In MATHEMATICS pi has a constatnt value which is '2.14' .
Next 2 formulas the used to calculate Resistance(R) and Inductance(L) of the load respectively.
Up till now we have entered the known values of the signal under examination. No in the next part of the tutorial, we are going to calculate the no of pulses per period of the sine wave or AC Signal under consideration.
MATLAB command to calculate the period of an AC signal is given below:

N=2*Q;

This is a simple product formula. 'Q' is the no of pulses per half period and when we will multiply it with 2, we get no of pulses in full period, which is 'N'.
Period of an AC cycle can be defined as the time taken by the AC voltage to complete its one cycle. Period is reciprocal of Frequency. Frequency can be defined as the no of waves passing through a particular point in one second. Both these terms are necessary to explain AC signal.
In the next part of the code, we are going to develop a function to generate a saw-tooth voltage from the given input parameters of the signal.
In each period of the sawtooth, there is one increasing and decreasing part of the sawtooth, thus the period of the input supply is divided into into 2N sub-periods. The function to develop this sawtooth voltage is given below:

for k=1:2*N for j=1:50 i=j+(k-1)*50; wt(i)=i*pi/(N*50); Vin(i)=sqrt(2)*Vrin*sin(wt(i)); ma1(i)=ma*abs(sin(wt(i))); if rem(k,2)==0 Vt(i)=0.02*j; if abs(Vt(i)-ma*abs(sin(wt(i))))<=0.011 m=j; beta(fix(k/2)+1)=3.6*((k-1)*50+m)/N; else j=j; end else Vt(i)=1-0.02*j; if abs(Vt(i)-ma*abs(sin(wt(i))))ma*abs(sin(wt(i))) Vout(i)=0; else Vout(i)=Vin(i); end end end beta(1)=[];

The above part code seems to be bit lengthy but it is not that difficult to understand. Since in the previous part we have generated a saw-tooth voltage and we need to calculate its period.
To calculate period, we have introduced some counters in our code named i,j and k. 'i' is the generalized counter.
'k' is the counter, used to count sub-periods and 'j' is the counter inside these sub-periods. From the beginning of the above part, we have defined a generalized counter, then we have calculated supply voltages through modulation of index.

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Then i have written a conditional loop consisting of 'if' and 'else' and we have generated a saw-tooth waveform from it.
In the end, the final value of this saw-tooth voltage is saved in variable named 'beta'.
Up-til now we have generated a saw-tooth voltage and we have calculated the beginning value (alpha) ,ending value (beta) and the period (width) of this saw-tooth voltage.
Now in the next part we will write the command to display all these values of the saw-tooth voltage curve. Part of CODE is given below:

disp(' ') disp('......................................................................') disp('alpha beta width') [alpha' beta' (beta-alpha)']

In this step, we will simply display the values of the saw-tooth voltage, which we have generated in the above code.
Now we will write a CODE to plot the graphs of the the voltage curve, we have generated above:

a=0; subplot(3,1,1) plot(wt,Vin,wt,a) axis([0,2*pi,-2,2]) title('Generation Of The Output Voltage Pulses ') ylabel('Vin(pu)'); subplot(3,1,2) plot(wt,Vt,wt,ma1,wt,a) axis([0,2*pi,-2,2]) ylabel('Vt, m(pu)'); subplot(3,1,3) plot(wt,Vout,wt,a) axis([0,2*pi,-2,2]) ylabel('Vo(pu)'); xlabel('Radian');

The title of this graph is generation of output voltage pulses and it will plot the graphs.
In next step, we will examine the output voltage curve. Its RMS value. HARMONIC components present in it and THRESHOLD value. CODE to examine all this is:

Vo =sqrt(1/(length(Vout))*sum(Vout.^2)); disp('The rms Value of the Output Voltage ') Vo y=fft(Vout); y(1)=[]; x=abs(y); x=(sqrt(2)/(length(Vout)))*x; disp('The rms Value of the output voltage fundamental component = ') x(1) THDVo = sqrt(Vo^2 -x(1)^2)/x(1);

The formulas to calculate all these parameters of output voltage curve are given in the above code.
Uptil now, we have calculated all the parameters of output voltage curve and now i am going to calculate the current parameters of the output curve. The algorithm to calculate the output current wave-form is given below:

m=R/(2*pi*f*L); DT=pi/(N*50); C(1)=-10; i=100*N+1:2000*N; Vout(i)=Vout(i-100*N*fix(i/(100*N))+1); for i=2:2000*N; C(i)=C(i-1)*exp(-m*DT)+Vout(i-1)/R*(1-exp(-m*DT)); end

Now we are going to calculate all the parameters of the current waveform, which we previously explained for the output voltage waveform. Now we are going to calculate the RMS value, Harmonic component and Threshold value of the output current. CODE to do all this is given below:

for j4=1:100*N CO(j4)=C(j4+1900*N); CO2= fft(CO); CO2(1)=[]; COX=abs(CO2); COX=(sqrt(2)/(100*N))*COX; end CORMS = sqrt(sum(CO.^2)/(length(CO))); disp(' The RMS value of the load current is') CORMS THDIo = sqrt(CORMS^2-COX(1)^2)/COX(1);

All the above data and results were to monitor output parameters.
Now we are going to calculate the current parameters of input supply voltages.
first of all, i will find the input supply current and then i will analyze this supply current. Find its RMS value, Find its Fourier series, its displacement factor and Threshold value of the input supply current. The CODE to perform all this work simultaneously is given below:

for j2=1900*N+1:2000*N if Vout(j2)~=0 CS(j2)=C(j2); else CS(j2)=0; end end for j3=1:100*N CS1(j3)=CS(j3+1900*N); end CSRMS= sqrt(sum(CS1.^2)/(length(CS1))); disp('The RMS value of the supply current is') CSRMS CS2= fft(CS1); CS2(1)=[]; CSX=abs(CS2); CSX=(sqrt(2)/(100*N))*CSX; THDIS = sqrt(CSRMS^2-CSX(1)^2)/CSX(1); phi1 = atan(real(CS2(1))/imag(CS2(1)))-pi/2; PF=cos(phi1)*CSX(1)/CSRMS;

Up till now we have calculated all the parameters and now we are going to draw a table in MATLAB and it will show all the results simultaneously.
The combined code to display all the parameters on the output window is given below:

disp(' Performance parameters are') THDVo THDIo THDIS PF a=0; figure(2) subplot(3,2,1) plot(wt,Vout(1:100*N),wt,a); title(''); axis([0,2*pi,-1.5,1.5]); ylabel('Vo(pu)'); % subplot(3,2,2) plot(x(1:100)) title(''); axis([0,100,0,0.8]); ylabel('Von(pu)'); subplot(3,2,3) plot(wt,C(1900*N+1:2000*N),wt,a); title(''); axis([0,2*pi,-1.5,1.5]); ylabel('Io(pu)'); subplot(3,2,4) plot(COX(1:100)) title(''); axis([0,100,0,0.8]); ylabel('Ion(pu)'); subplot(3,2,5) plot(wt,CS(1900*N+1:2000*N),wt,a); axis([0,2*pi,-1.5,1.5]); ylabel('Is(pu)'); xlabel('Radian'); subplot(3,2,6) plot(CSX(1:100)) title(''); axis([0,100,0,0.8]); ylabel('Isn(pu)'); xlabel('Harmonic Order');

In the above code 2 commands are used in excess. First one is 'plot', which is used to plot any particular function in MATLAB and the second command is 'subplot' which is used to draw multiple plots like 2 or 3 plots in the same window.
When you will write all this CODE and you will run it then, graphs will appear according to the data you entered to examine that particular signal.

RESULTS

The graphical results of all the above tutorial will be displayed in this section. First of all, when you will run the M-file then command window will appear and it will ask you give some input values of the supply voltages.
Such command window is shown in the image below:

After inputing these values, the above given algorithm will start plotting the graphs, the firsst graph is shown in the below figure:

Next plot is shown below, the graphs are labelled that's why I am not explaining them much.

It will also give some other values in the MATLAB's command window, a screenshot of these values is as follows:

Here's the complete programming code for this project:

clc clear all disp('Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of AC Signal') disp(' ') Vrin=1; f=input('The frequency of the input supply voltage, f = '); Z=1; ma=input('the modulation index,ma, (0<ma<1), ma = '); phi=input('the phase angle of the load in degrees = '); Q=input('The number of pulses per half period = '); phi=phi*pi/180; R=Z*cos(phi); L=(Z*sin(phi))/(2*pi*f); N=2*Q; for k=1:2*N for j=1:50 i=j+(k-1)*50; wt(i)=i*pi/(N*50); Vin(i)=sqrt(2)*Vrin*sin(wt(i)); ma1(i)=ma*abs(sin(wt(i))); if rem(k,2)==0 Vt(i)=0.02*j; if abs(Vt(i)-ma*abs(sin(wt(i))))<=0.011 m=j; beta(fix(k/2)+1)=3.6*((k-1)*50+m)/N; else j=j; end else Vt(i)=1-0.02*j; if abs(Vt(i)-ma*abs(sin(wt(i))))<0.011 l=j; alpha(fix(k/2)+1)=3.6*((k-1)*50+l)/N; else j=j; end end if Vt(i)>ma*abs(sin(wt(i))) Vout(i)=0; else Vout(i)=Vin(i); end end end beta(1)=[]; disp(' ') disp('..........................................') disp('alpha beta width') [alpha' beta' (beta-alpha)'] a=0; subplot(3,1,1) plot(wt,Vin,wt,a) axis([0,2*pi,-2,2]) title('Generation Of The Output Voltage Pulses ') ylabel('Vin(pu)'); subplot(3,1,2) plot(wt,Vt,wt,ma1,wt,a) axis([0,2*pi,-2,2]) ylabel('Vt, m(pu)'); subplot(3,1,3) plot(wt,Vout,wt,a) axis([0,2*pi,-2,2]) ylabel('Vo(pu)'); xlabel('Radian'); Vo =sqrt(1/(length(Vout))*sum(Vout.^2)); disp('The rms Value of the Output Voltage ') Vo y=fft(Vout); y(1)=[]; x=abs(y); x=(sqrt(2)/(length(Vout)))*x; disp('The rms Value of the output voltage fundamental component = ') x(1) THDVo = sqrt(Vo^2 -x(1)^2)/x(1); m=R/(2*pi*f*L); DT=pi/(N*50); C(1)=-10; i=100*N+1:2000*N; Vout(i)=Vout(i-100*N*fix(i/(100*N))+1); for i=2:2000*N; C(i)=C(i-1)*exp(-m*DT)+Vout(i-1)/R*(1-exp(-m*DT)); end for j4=1:100*N CO(j4)=C(j4+1900*N); CO2= fft(CO); CO2(1)=[]; COX=abs(CO2); COX=(sqrt(2)/(100*N))*COX; end CORMS = sqrt(sum(CO.^2)/(length(CO))); disp(' The RMS value of the load current is') CORMS THDIo = sqrt(CORMS^2-COX(1)^2)/COX(1); for j2=1900*N+1:2000*N if Vout(j2)~=0 CS(j2)=C(j2); else CS(j2)=0; end end for j3=1:100*N CS1(j3)=CS(j3+1900*N); end CSRMS= sqrt(sum(CS1.^2)/(length(CS1))); disp('The RMS value of the supply current is') CSRMS CS2= fft(CS1); CS2(1)=[]; CSX=abs(CS2); CSX=(sqrt(2)/(100*N))*CSX; THDIS = sqrt(CSRMS^2-CSX(1)^2)/CSX(1); phi1 = atan(real(CS2(1))/imag(CS2(1)))-pi/2; PF=cos(phi1)*CSX(1)/CSRMS; disp(' Performance parameters are') THDVo THDIo THDIS PF a=0; figure(2) subplot(3,2,1) plot(wt,Vout(1:100*N),wt,a); title(''); axis([0,2*pi,-1.5,1.5]); ylabel('Vo(pu)'); % subplot(3,2,2) plot(x(1:100)) title(''); axis([0,100,0,0.8]); ylabel('Von(pu)'); subplot(3,2,3) plot(wt,C(1900*N+1:2000*N),wt,a); title(''); axis([0,2*pi,-1.5,1.5]); ylabel('Io(pu)'); subplot(3,2,4) plot(COX(1:100)) title(''); axis([0,100,0,0.8]); ylabel('Ion(pu)'); subplot(3,2,5) plot(wt,CS(1900*N+1:2000*N),wt,a); axis([0,2*pi,-1.5,1.5]); ylabel('Is(pu)'); xlabel('Radian'); subplot(3,2,6) plot(CSX(1:100)) title(''); axis([0,100,0,0.8]); ylabel('Isn(pu)'); xlabel('Harmonic Order');

That's all for today. I have tried my best to explain it in detail but still if you get into some trouble then ask in comments.

Traffic Signal Control using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS

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Proteus

Hello Friends, i hope you all are fine and enjoying. Now i am going to share my new project tutorial which is Traffic Signal Control using 555 Timer. Up till now i have uploaded a no. of projects using 555 timer and i have got much appreciation from my friends, for some 555 timer based projects like How to use Capacitive Touch Sensor in Proteus ISIS, Sequential LED Blinking using 555 Timer and many more.

Now i am going to share another application of 555 Timer and here we will be using a shift register (4017) next to 555 timer to implement Traffic Signal Control circuit. 4017 is a SERIAL IN PARALLEL OUT shift register. Data enters in a serial manner into register and it leaves the register in parallel manner. 4017 is a 10-bit shift register and it needs a clock pulse to shift data from serial input pin to parallel output pins. Now we need a device which can provide continuous clock pulse to Shift Register. Clock pulse is generated either from Micro-controllers or some sort of timers. Here we will be using 555 Timer to generate clock pulse. It is a very easy project to understand and also very simple to implement. These type of projects are generally designed by the Engineering students in their First or Second semester. Now i am done with the theory of the circuit and now lets move towards the designing of the project.

You can also download the complete simulation of the above described project by simply clicking on the button given below:

Traffic Signal Control using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS

First of all place all the components in your proteus workspace,as shown in the image below:

Threshold voltage for 555 Timer is 5 volts, and when voltages exceeds this level, 555 timer triggers and it generates a output pulse at its output pin which is ‘Q’ pin.
In this project, we will be using a battery of 12 volts as supply voltages.Positive pin (+) of source is connected to Vcc pin of 555 Timer and the Negative pin (-) is connected to GND pin of 555 timer.
Pin#3 of 555 timer is connected to CLK pin of shift register and this pin is the data input pin of shift register. Through this pin, 555 timer send data to shift register.
At output pins of shift register we have connected 3 Leds, RED, YELLOW and GREEN. Same colors which are used in Traffic Signals.
RED led is connected to output pin#12. YELLOW LED has 2 parallel inputs that are pined at pin#10 and pin#11 respectively. Diodes are connected the way of inputs to block reverse currents. YELLOW led will glow if any of the input will be HIGH.
GREEN led has 4 parallel inputs connected at pin# 1,5,6,9 respectively. GREEN led has to blink for longer time, that's why we have connected multiple inputs to it. GREEN led will keep on glowing as along as any of the input will be HIGH.
If you connected all the components in their exact position and all the connections are OK, then the final circuit will look like as shown in the image below:

Now if you look the above circuit closely then, you will observe that we have connected high valued capacitor (47uf) in the way of trigger pin of 555 timer.
The purpose of capacitor is to produce lag in the clock generated by 555 Timer.
Now when you will play the simulation then LED will start to glow in periodic manner. First RED led will blink, then YELLOW led will glow and in the end GREEN led will start to glow.
All these stages are shown in the image given below:

As you can see that state#1 represents the "STOP" state, which means that traffic has to stop.
State#2 represents "GET READY" state and it means get ready to GO but you are not allowed to go yet.
State#3 represents "GO" state, in which traffic is allowed to Go.

Alright friends that was all for today's project. It was a very simple tutorial and most of its portion have been explained in previous tutorials. So i haven't explain it in much detail. But still if you have any problem then, don't feel shy to ask in the comments. Till next tutorial Take Care !!! :)

Fault Detection of Gas Turbine in MATLAB

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Communication Engineering

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MATLAB

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Hello friends, I hope you all are fine and enjoying. Today i am going to share a new project which is Fault Detection of Gas Turbine in MATLAB. In this project, i will try to elaborate that, What is a Gas Turbine? What are the operating parameters of a Gas Turbine? Mostly what type of Faults and Vibrations comes in Gas Turbine system during its operation? Gas Turbine is also called a Combustion Turbine. It has Four Basic components which includes Compressor, Combustion Chamber, Turbine and Alternator.

Generally compressor is installed upstream and the Rotating turbine is connected downstream and the Combustion Chamber is connected in between both of them and at the end of line we have Alternator which is also connected on the same shaft.Gas Turbine operates on "Brayton Cycle". Gas Turbine can be divided into 2 main sections, COLD Section and HOT Section, as shown in the above feature image. COLD Section includes Compressor and the HOT Section includes Turbine and and Exhaust portion. First of all, Compressor in-takes the Fresh atmospheric air and after compression it gets to high pressure, next comes the Combustion Chamber in which fuel is sprayed continuously and ignites the air so that combustion generates a High-Temperature Flow. In the next stage, this high temperature and high pressure gas enters into turbine and it releases its energy to turbine blades and the Turbine starts to rotate. A synchronous generator is also connected on the same shaft of the Turbine and when turbine gets to its rated rpm, then synchronous generator starts to generate electricity. Gas Turbines are of different Sizes and Ratings. The operation of Gas Turbine includes to monitor a large no of parameters. For example During the operation of Gas Turbine, a large no. of equipments are operating simultaneously and there are always chances of some fault occurrence and some abnormal vibrations. Although we also have a large no of primary and secondary protection equipments installed but we still need very careful monitoring of the system for its safe operation. Gas turbines are widely used in aircraft engines, trains, ships and coupled with electrical generators to generate electricity.

It was quite a tough job of design the Model of Gas Turbine in Simulink and it includes a lot of our team efforts, so we haven't made it a open source and we have placed a very small amount for this which is, 10$ only. You can click on the above button to purchase the complete control model of Gas Turbine in Simulink. Above was a small introduction about the basic components of Gas Turbine and their operation. Now lets move towards the designing of the Fault Detection of Gas Turbine in MATLAB.

You may also like to read:

Fault Detection of Gas Turbine in MATLAB

In order to observe the Fault Detection of Gas Turbine in MATLAB, we are gonna use Simulink which is available in MATLAB.
The complete Simulink model of Gas Turbine is shown in the image given below:

First of all fresh air from atmosphere is entered into the system and and next to that we have a 'Reference Filter', which removes dust particles from air.
Next to that, we have a Mu- Law compressor and to see the other properties of this compressor you will select that icon and then right click on it, a window will open and then you will click on option 'look under mask' .
When you will click that option, a new window will open in Simulink and it will be representing the actual parameters of Mu-Law compressor.
You can see that in the figure given below:

The output of Mu-Law compressor comes to a summing junction and at this junction, we also have another input which is of Combustor Heat.
The output of the summing junction goes to the combustor delay and exhaust delay.
The output of combustor delay and the exhaust delay is connected to a scope.
The purpose of scope is to see the actual output graphical parameters of the of the combustion delay and exhaust delay and we can also check some abnormalities through it.
The output of combustor relay goes to Gas Turbine Dynamics. It is Gas Turbine built in function and it is used to observe the dynamic behavior of Gas Turbine. The Gas Turbines Dynamics control are shown in the image below:

The output of Gas Turbine goes to 'Throttle and Manifold' control. This control is observing the air intake dynamics of the gas turbine.
If you double click on it, then a new window will open which will be showing the embedded close loop system of 'Throttle and Manifold ' control, which can be easily seen in the image given below:

First comes the throttle angle control of gas turbine. It has three inputs.
First input is the Throttle angle 'Theta' and this angle is measured in 'degrees'.
Second input is of the atmospheric pressure which is measured in 'bar', as you can see in the above image.
Third input is of the 'Manifold Pressure' and it is also measured in bar.
Manifold is actually the output of second control system which is also embedded in the same system.
From above image, we see that on the next stage, output of 'Throttle Control' is actually the the input of 'Manifold Control' system and second input of manifold system is Engine Speed which is actually the speed of Gas Turbine and it is measured in rad/sec.

The whole output of all the system is Air Charge. As i described earlier that when fresh atmospheric air is burned in the combustion chamber then High Temp and High Pressure Air charge is produced.
Now this High Temp and High Pressure Air charge goes to the next control system which is 'Induction to power stroke Delay'. In order to observe the properties of this system, you simply double click on the function and a new window will open, which is shown in the image given below:

As you can see in the above image, we have 2 inputs to this system. First one is Air charge and second one is running speed of the turbine.
If you closely observe the image then, you will notice that we have place 2 inputs to control model named as 'Divide1'. It is actually a comparator and it is continuously comparing the actual running speed of the turbine and the constant reference value.
Whenever speed will deviate from its reference value then error will be generated.
Both these inputs goes to the next control box which is, 'variable time delay'. It continuously monitors the ratio of air charge flowing into the system and the corresponding turbine speed. For example, whenever the pressure or temp of the inlet steam will vary then, turbine speed will vary and this control model will generate an error, which will tell us that some abnormalities are going on in the system.
Next comes the 'Engine Torque Control' . It has 2 inputs. First input is of the Air Charge and the second input is the speed of the Turbine. If you double click on this control model then, a new window will open representing its properties. That window is shown in the image below:

Engine Torque is defined by 4 input parameters. First is Air charge and you can see that Air Charge input also goes to the Stoichiometric Fuel burning mechanism of combustion chamber. This is because the combustion chamber burns the fuel according to already existing temp and pressure of the charged air.
If the temp of the air entering the combustion chamber is much low then, it will have to burn more fuel to get the proper temp and pressure of the air.
Third input is of the 'Spark Advance'. It monitors that either spark plug is igniting the fuel with proper timing or not. If the spark plug doesn't ignite the fuel on exact time then, unburnt fuel particles will comes through exhaust hole. and engine will not run smoothly.
Fourth input is of the speed of the turbine. Engine Torque control also monitors the existing speed of the turbine. and turbine is not running with the proper speed then, it will decide either it has to open more fuel to get it to proper speed or there is some issue going with spark ignition system.
All these parameters define the Engine's torque and if there is any problem with any of the input then output torque will also vary accordingly.
All these system's output goes to the Function Block Parameters and this block converts angular velocity to rpm. It is in fact a techogenerator.
Techogenerator is in fact a sensor, which is mounted in the shaft of any rotating mechanism and it records the angular speed of the shaft and generates a electrical signal in form of RPMs. It continuously monitors the angular speed of the turbine and then it converts it to RPM.
In the next stage, output of techogenerator goes to the summing junction. This junction has 2 inputs. First input is from techogenerator and the second input is from external disturbance.
External Disturbance has a very important role in defining the safe operation of any system. It not only disturbs the system but in severe conditions, it can also collapse the system.
In the next and final stage, we have a Gear Box model of the Gas turbine. If we double click on it then a new window will open, which will be representing its internal parameters. The internal detail of this control model is shown in the image given below:

It is the most important control model of Gas Turbine. It has only one input which is rpm of turbine and this input is coming from techogenerator.
As you can see in the above given image that, it monitors RPM, Vibrations, Over Vibrations, Dangerous Vibrations and Bearing factor errors.
Now if you note from the above given image then you will see that RPM, we have connected a scope and the factors which needs continuous monitoring are over vibrations and Bearing Factor error.
When we will run the simulation, the the system will monitor it completely from first stage to final stage (which is from inlet fresh air to RPM of Gas Turbine) . If any problem comes in the system then turbine speed will vary.
Dear friends, the beauty of any project's simulation is that we can put abnormalities in our system and then, we can monitor the system's behaviour under these abnormalities. This thing helps in improvising new technology and also lead us to a better design of the system.
Now in the above figure, we hava a control model named 'variation of the system'. when you will double click on that then, a third small window will open, which is shown in the image given below:

If you look closely the option named "Constant value" then here we can change the vibrations inserted in the system. Here we change the value according to our own choice and we will start from 1 and then go to maximum value (12) and observe the behaviour of Gas Turbine.
Now i am going to create some abnormalities on the above system's and we will see their results and then we will conclude either they are dangerous or not.

RESULTS

We have seen the detailed explanation of "Fault Detection of Gas turbine in MATLAB" and I hope till now you got much familiar with how its operating. So now lets have a look at the results of this simulation.
First of all, i am going to keep vibrations of the system at 1 then i will play the simulation then the Gear Box will generate the following results, as shown in the image below:

Now we can see that as we have set the vibration value to 1 so there's no errors gennerated by the simulation. In other words, our gas turbine is running smoothly and is not generating any erros.
Now i am going to increase the vibrations of the system and i am going to keep its value 10.Then the generated results are given as:

From above figure, you have seen that System is generating over speeding error and Bearing Factor error but they are not Dangerous yet and system can also run under these conditions.
In the next stage, i am going to increase the vibrations of systems a little more and i will make its value 12. Now we will observe the output of the system from the below figure:

From above figure, we can easily see that i have increase the vibrations of the turbine upto that extend that it has generated the Dangerous alarm. Now we must immediately stop the system and if we didn't do that, then the system will collapse.
Now i am going to share the graphs of the no. of Scopes we have added in our system.
Output graph of "Scope # 1" is given in the figure below:

Above graph is of scope#1 and it is representing the curves of 'Combustor Delay' and 'Exhaust Delay'.
The output graph of the next scope, added in the system is given in the image below:

The above figure is showing the curves of 2 different functions. First is Thermocouple Transfer Function and the next is of Temperature Reference.
The output graph of the scope#2 is shown in the image below:

In the above graph, we have 3 curves. Straight curve is of HEAT. Since turbine is running at normal temp and no over heating is produced in it.
The green curve is of Combustion delay and Exhaust Delay. This is a very abrupt curve. To make it smooth,we have added another control model named as "Transfer Function 1". That's why the yellow curve is the final curve and it is rather smooth than the other two.
Now in the end, i am going to share the output curve of scope#5, which is shown as below:

The above graph is of the RPM of the turbine. As we can see that in the begining, when the simulation was OFF then, curve was at zero. Then we started the simulation and the infact turbine started and it started to accelerate and it gained it max speed which is 10,000 rpm within 10 seconds. which can be verified from above image.

Alright Friends, the above tutorial was a little bit lengthy but it was very interesting and have a large no of industrial applications. If you have any questions regarding above tutorial then, don't hesitate to ask and i will try my best to satisfy you. Follow us to get the whole simulations straight in your inbox. Till next tutorial Take Care !! :)

How to create a GUI in MATLAB ?

Departments:

Communication Engineering

Softwares:

MATLAB

Hello friends, I hope you all are fine and enjoying life. Today i am going to share a new project tutorial which is How to create a GUI in MATLAB ? First of all, lets have a little introduction that what is meant by GUI? How it is created and what are the uses and applications of GUI? GUI stands for Graphical User Interface. We all know the basics of MATLAB that it is used for creating complex algorithms and to create Simulink simulation, but we don't know that it aalso has another feature which is to create GUIs. The algorithms developed in MATLAB works on the background and do their tasks while MATLAB also emphasis on the user interaction that's why it has also provided us with GUI so that we can create a user friendly front end interface for our algorithm.

So, in today's post, we are gonna have a look at How to create a GUI in MATLAB so that we could also give a user friendly front end to our algorithms. MATLAB GUI has an extensive database with a lot of functionalities, which I can't cover in one post but atleast today, I will make you able to create a simple GUI and will also explain How to control buttons and edit/text boxes etc. After performing this tutorial, you will be able to try GUI on your own.

So, today we will create a simple project in which we will create a simple GUI as shown in below image. The functionality of this GUI will be that when you click on this START button then the text,you have written in the white edit box will appear at the text box above, as shown in figure below. Let's get started with the implementation of this GUI. Follow the steps carefully and ask in comments if you got into any trouble.

You may also like to read:

You can download this GUI by clicking on the below button, but first read the tutorial completely aand try to pratice it by yourself,don''t just download the run the applicationas it won't give you any help.

Download Simple GUI Project in MATLAB

How to Create a GUI in MATLAB ?

First of all, when you will open your MATLAB software then, the first window opened will look like as shown in the image below.This is the simple workspace of MATLAB, now in order to open theGUI toolbar, you have to write "guide" in the workspace as I did below:

After writing the "guide" in command window, hit ENTER and a new small window will open up as shown in the below image, from here we will start creating our GUI.

As you can see in this small window, there are two tabs, one tab is named as Create New GUI, which has the options for creating your GUI for the first time while the second tab is named as Open Existing GUI, which is used for opening the already designed GUIs and as we haven't designed any GUI yet so we will remain in the first tab and will select blank GUI from the list and hit Enter.
Then press "OK" button and as you will complete the action, a new window will immediately open and it will look like as shown in the image given below:

This is the place where we are gonna create our GUI. The left side toolbar is showing the controls which we will drag aand drop in the main window and will design our GUI.
Let's first have a look at the left side toolbar controls. On the top left side of the bar, the first button is to select 'cursor' . Below curser button we have icon of 'Push Button'. Next to that we have 'side scroll bar'. Then comes 'Radio Button' and 'Check Box'. Then we have most important buttons which are 'Edit text bar' button and 'Static text bar' button. Below are also some other buttons and you can also explore them by simply clicking on them.

Other MATLAB Projects:

Now we are going to make a very small and simple interface, in which we will first select a 'button' and then we will select 'Edit text bar' and 'static text bar' and we will make the arrangement in such a way that, when we will press the button then, data will move from Edit text box to Static text box.
Now click on the 'button' icon and the next thing which will happen on the window will be like as shown in the image below:

Now if you want to change the properties of the button, either you want to change its name or you want to change its setting then, simply double click the button and a new window will open, which will be as:

As you can see in the above image that a new window has been opened and it has a large no of options.
To change the name of push button, go to 'string' option and here you can change its name.
In above image, you can clearly see that, i have replaced the name 'Push Button' by 'Start'.
Now click on the Play icon in the top toolbar which is used to run the GUI. After doing that, a new window will open, which is shown in the below image:

This new window in above figure is the back end programming of this GUI created automatically by MATLAB, here we are gonna add all the codes for our ontrols.
Now we want to add a static text box and we will select it from tool bar manually.
And if you again want to change its name then, we will double click on that. Go to slide option and and write whatever you want to write there.
All this process is shown in the below image:

Now i want to write our official site address, which is "www.TheEngineeringProjects.com" .
And when i will press OK button then our GUI window will look like as shown in the below image:

This time, I have not only changed the name of this text box but have also changed the font size and color that's why it is appearing now in light blue color and its font size has also increased. So, now you must have the idea that you can control all the properties and can make it literaly a new thing. The only thing stopping you is your imagination. :)
In the same manner we will select edit text box.
Now by doing all this, actually i want to write some data in Edit Text Box and when i will press Start button then, data will move from Edit Text Box to Static Text Box.
To implement this logic we need to load a function code in 'Start' button. To load the code, right click on the Start button and a new window will open as shown in the image below:

As shown in the above image when you will go to the 'view callbacks' option and a next window will open direct to it and then click on the 'call back' button.
After that a new window will open which will be representing the code which has been uploaded in the 'Start' button.
This window is shown in the below image:

Now code has been uploaded and the very next window which will open, will be of 'Edit Text Box' .
Here you can write anything which you want to Display in 'Static Text Box'.
So in this window, i am writing my tutorials title, which is "How to create a GUI in MATLAB".
It can be seen in the below image:

When you will press Enter then, immediately an-other button will open which will be representing that our data has been moved to 'Static Text Box'.

As you have seen that our Final Display is same. Which means we have moved data from Edit Text Box to Static Text Box.
The code added in the button CallBack is as follows:

x = get(handles.edit1,'String'); %edit1 being Tag of ur edit box if isempty(x) fprintf('Error: Enter Text firstn'); else set(handles.text2,'String',x) end

Have a look at this below video in which we have explained in detail How to Create a GUI in MATLAB:

Alright Friends, that was all from today's post and i hope you have learned something new. Don't feel shy to ask anything in comments. Till next tutorial take care !! :)

Relay Control Using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS

Departments:

Components:

Softwares:

Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are fine and enjoying yourself. Today I am going to share my new project tutorial which is Relay Control Using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS. We all know about relays that are used for automatic switching and are magnetically connected while electrically insulated. If you don't know much about relays then I think you should first read What is a Relay? in which I have given a detailed overview of relays and where are relays used? After reading this post you will have a good grip over relay and today's post will be piece of cake for you. Relays are mostly used with some microcontrollers like Arduino or PIC Microcontroller. You might also wanna have a look at traffic Signal Control using 555 Timer, which is good if you are interested in learning 555 Timer.

Now in today's project, it can be understood from its name (Relay Control Using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS), that we are going to operate and control a Relay through 555 Timer. First of all, if we define the relay, then we can say that 'Relay is an Electrical switch which operates Mechanically'. You should also check this Relay Simulation in Proteus to know how it works. Although some relays operate automatically but since we are working on a very basic project and we will be controlling the relay from an external mean and for this, we will use a mechanical switch. The mechanical switch is in fact a button and we can turn it ON or OFF according to our own choice. It is a very simple and easy project and most of its contents have been described in the earlier tutorials. So, I am not going into much detail and without wasting any time, let's move towards the Hardware of the circuit. But it's my personal advice, try to do design this relay control using the 555 timer project yourself and get to know the practical applications of the 555 Timer in person. You can also download the complete simulation of above described tutorial by simply clicking on the button given below:

Download Project Files

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	555 Timer	Amazon	Buy Now
2	LEDs	Amazon	Buy Now
3	Resistor	Amazon	Buy Now

Relay Control Using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS

First of all place all the components in your Proteus workspace as shown in the image given below:

Now connect supply voltage (+5 volts) to Vcc pin of 555 Timer.
At the output pin of 555 Timer, which is pin # 3, we will connect our load. By load we mean a 5 volts relay and a simple DC motor is connected next to the relay.
As I told you earlier that we are using a manual relay, so a simple push Button is also connected between pin # 3 and relay.
If you have connected all the electronic components in their exact place, then the final simulation will look like as shown in the image given below:

If you notice the image closely, then you will observe that a Diode is also connected in parallel with the relay coil.
A Relay contains a coil. When the voltage source is applied across one end of the Relay and the other end is connected to the ground, then the relay gets energized. And when we remove the source voltages then, it still remains energized and the stored charge tends to flow the reverse current.
The reason to connect the Diode is that it blocks the reverse current and only allows the forward current to pass through it.
Now run the simulation, if the button is kept in the OFF state then, the voltage will appear across the Relay but it will not operate. To run the load, which is Motor, in this case, we will have to turn the switch ON. This can be seen in the image given below:

As you can see in the above image, when the switch was in an ON state, the relay gets no signal and doesn't operate. As we move the switch from ON state to OFF state, the relay gets the signal and it starts to operate the load.
Now after reading today's post, you must have a look at Relay Interfacing with Microcontroller which is an advanced tutorial and the benefit of a microcontroller is that now you can control your relay any way you want.
Other exciting tutorials on 555 Timer include Seven segment Control using 555 timer and Servo Motor Control using 555 Timer.
I have created a small video for this tutorial in which I have shown how to do relay control using 555 Timer, I hope you are gonna like it:

Alright, Friends that was all for today's tutorial about relay control using a 555 timer. I hope, I have conveyed something new today. If you have any questions, then don't hesitate to ask in the comments and I will try my best to resolve them. Follow us through email to get the tutorial straight in your inbox. Till the next tutorial, Take care and Be Safe !!! :)

How to use Capacitive Touch Sensor in Proteus ISIS ?

Departments:

Softwares:

Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are fine and enjoying. Today i am going to share my new project's tutorial which is How to use Capacitive Touch Sensor in Proteus ISIS. It is a very interesting project, and we will be using a 555 Timer while designing this project. If you recall our previous project tutorial which was Angle Control of Servo Motor using 555 Timer in Proteus ISIS, in which 555 timer was generating PWM and was controlling the rotating angle of servo motor.

Now in this project, we have a little different context and now we will be using a 555 Timer in collaboration with Capacitive Touch Sensor. First of all, lets have a little introduction of Capacitive Touch Sensor. Well, if we talk broadly then, in Electrical Engineering Capacitive Touch Sensing is a Technology used in Capacitive Coupling. Capacitive Coupling is a technology which takes Human Body's Capacitance as an input and it measures anything which has a potential difference or which is conductive or any static object which has a dielectric difference from that of air. While designing this technology, one side of the insulator is coated with the conductive material and a very small voltage is applied to this conductive layer. Now after applying the voltages to the conductive layer, a uniform electrostatic field is formed. After that if any conductor (suppose human finger) will come within the vicinity of this field or it touches the other non coated layer of the insulating material then a capacitor will be dynamically formed and if potential difference between both bodies is HIGH then the current will start to flow. That was a little introduction of Capacitive Touch Sensor, and now lets be practical and move towards the Hardware of the Above described tutorial.

You can download the complete simulation of above described project by simply clicking on the button given below:

Download Simulation Files

How to use Capacitive Touch Sensor in Proteus

In this project, we are using 555 Timer in collaboration with Capacitive Touch Sensor. A 555 timer is an 8 pin IC. Pin # 6 is called threshold pin and for 555 timer threshold level is 5 volts.

So, 555 timer will trigger above 5 volts and it will generate output which can be collected from pin # 3 represented as ‘Q’ which is output pin of 555 timer.
While moving toward the simulation of project, first of all place all the components in the proteus workspace, as shown in the image given below:

First of all we have place Capacitive Touch Sensor and after that we have placed a NPN transistor, then 555 Timer will come and at the output of 555 Timer we have added a LED. The complete circuit diagram ready for simulation is shown in the image given below:

As long as the finger is out of the vicinity of the electrostatic field, no potential difference occurs and the LED remains in the OFF state.
Now if we move the finger towards Capacitive Touch Sensor, then and when the potential difference reaches up to 0.6 volts, then 555 triggers and it generates output voltages across LED which are 5 volts but in some cases voltages are lost due to series connected resistances. This phenomenon is shown in below image:

Now if we further move the finger and take it completely near the sensor, then at this point max potential difference will occur between both point (finger and conductive layer). An important thing to note here is that, we have change the location of our interrupt ( finger) but, same voltages are appearing across LED which are 4.91 volts in this case. It can also seen in the figure given below:

Now, if we summarize the whole project, then we have seen that the movement of finger is in fact controlling our output. When the finger was out of vicinity of the sensor, then LED was OFF. When we moved the finger in forward direction and came in the vicinity of Electrostatic field, then Sensor gives signal to 555 Timer and Timer makes LED to glow.
Here's a video demonstrating Capacitive Touch Sensor in Proteus ISIS.

Applications Of Capacitive Touch Sensor

Capacitive sensing touchscreens are now a days commonly used in Digital Audio Players, Mobile Phones and Tablet Computers. Capacitive touch sensors also have the ability to replace Mechanical Buttons. Back in 1928 Russians invented a music instrument known as "Theremin" , in which The Instrument Player was able to control the volume and pitch of the sound without physically touching the instrument. Capacitive Touch Sensors are of basic level but they are back bone of large industrial projects and are widely used in designing some other sensors like:

Position sensor.
Humidity sensor.
Fluid or Water level sensor.
Proximity sensor etc..

Alright friends, that’s all for today, I hope I have conveyed some knowledge and helped you people in some way. If you have some queries, then ask in comments. Subscribe us via email to get these tutorials straight in your inbox. Till next tutorial, take care and be safe !!! :)

Syed Zain Nasir

I am Syed Zain Nasir, the founder of <a href=https://www.TheEngineeringProjects.com/>The Engineering Projects</a> (TEP). I am a programmer since 2009 before that I just search things, make small projects and now I am sharing my knowledge through this platform.I also work as a freelancer and did many projects related to programming and electrical circuitry. <a href=https://plus.google.com/+SyedZainNasir/>My Google Profile+</a>

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