The Engineering Projects

Introduction to Buck Converter

Hey Guys! Hope you all are doing great and having fun. Today, I am going to discuss the details on the Introduction to Buck Converter. It is a power converter which is mainly used to stepping down the voltage from its input to the output load. It mainly consists of two semiconductors and one energy storing components which can be either capacitor or inductor. It works best in the circuits where electrical isolation is not required.

Introduction to Buck Converter

• Buck converters are power converters which are mainly used for converting high voltage to the low voltage. These converters are highly efficient, showing almost 90% of efficiency.
• They are useful for performing a special task like converting the huge supply voltage of 12 V in the computer to 1.8 V for making it useful for operating small components like USB, CPU, and DRAM.
• Transistor used in buck converter act as a switching device. Obtaining a continuous output is the main purpose of buck converter which can be achieved by using the energy stored in the capacitor.
• Transistor switches between on and off at high frequency. Energy stored in the capacitor is mainly used in the buck converter during the off condition of the transistor, making it useful for obtaining a continuous output.
• Circuit diagram of a buck converter is given below:

   

• Buck converter is mainly called as a DC to DC converter. Source input can either be obtained directly from DC source or from rectified AC source.
• After getting DC source, it is passed through a switching transistor which converts it AC source. Eventually, the AC source is converted to DC source at the output voltage.

1. Buck Converter Working Principle

• Buck converter consists of switching transistor, diode, and energy storing elements such as capacitor or inductor. Transistor switches between on and off continuously. When the transistor switch is turned on, it is denoted by T(on) and when it is turned off, it is denoted by T(off). Duty cycle can be obtained by the dividing the time when switch is turned on with the total time of the cycle

D = T(on)/T

• Inductors works in both ways i.e. it opposes the current from changing its direction and also as an energy storing element. Energy is stored in the inductor which prevents the output from getting too high and that energy is released when the transistor is switched to off condition.

If Transistor is Switched ON

• When transistor is switched on, current will flow from the inductor L. Current flowing through the load is being restricted by the inductor and a surplus amount of energy will be stored in the inductor. Circuit diagram of a buck converter is shown in the figure given below when the transistor is switched on.

• The diode which is reverse biased won't take part in the operation of the buck converter as there is large positive voltage appear to the cathode part of the diode. When the switch is closed the voltage across inductor will be

V(Inductor) = V(in) - V(out)

• The capacitor using in this circuit diagram will continuously charge up to the maximum value and releases its energy when the transistor switches to off condition.

If Transistor is Switched OFF

When transistor switches to off condition, the diode available in the buck converter turns to forward biased, making its cathode negative and anode side positive. Circuit diagram of the buck converter is shown in the figure given below when transistor is switched off.

• When transistor is switched off, the inductor will automatically change its polarity with respect to the polarity given in transistor on condition. Now, the voltage across the inductor is also called back emf and it will give its energy back to the circuit during off condition. Here V(inductor) = - V(out)
• Sometimes we need minimum output at the output voltage, in this case, current flowing through the inductor becomes zero. When it falls below zero, it results in automatically discharing the capacitor energy which is stored when the transistor is operated in on condition. When capacitor is completely discharged, it automatically erupts the high switching losses. Pulse frequency modulation is used to avoid such losses.
• The average value of energy stored in inductor will always remain same at the end of the cycle.
• When output begins to fall, the only source of energy will be the energy from the capacitor, causing the current to flow through load and also preventing it from going too high.
• We get the output in the ripple form, instead of getting in square form. And can be defined as

V(out) = V(in) * T(on)/ T

Here T(on) is a time duration of the cycle when the transistor is on and T is the total time of the cycle.

• • Ripple formed in buck converter shows that voltage goes high at the on state and drops down at off state.

2. Examining the current waveform during overall cycle

Let us examine the current wave form of diode current, inductor current and input current during overall cycle. This diagram clearly shows that inductor current is equal to the sum of diode and input/switch current.

• During whole cycle input current will be much less than the output current, resulting in stepping down the voltage at the output. Notice that, assuming the ideal conditions, the overall power of the cycle will remain constant. i.e. V(in)*I(in) = V(out)*I(out)
• However, getting perfect circuit is not possible in reality due to some energy losses. Maximum efficiency that practical buck converters exhibit is about 85%.

3. Applications of Buck Converters

Buck converters exhibit a wide range of application depending on its efficiency and durability. Some of its main applications are given below.

USB ON-the-GO

USB On-the-GO is mainly used for connecting the mouse, keyboard and other useful devices to the smartphone. The main purpose of buck converter using in USB is to draw power from the USB and delivers it to the smartphone. Hence, it is the main source of regulating the power in both directions.

• When smartphone is plugged into charging, the buck converter is used to charge the lithium battery inside the smartphone,
• When some mice or keyboard is connected to the smartphone, buck converter works in a reverse order and draws power from the lithium battery and delivers it to the keyboard or mouse connected to the smartphone.

POL (Point of Load) converter for Laptops

• POL, also known as a voltage regulator, is a converter that is widely used in laptops and desktop computers. It is very useful in operating the motherboard at low voltage.
• Compressors are very delicate devices fixed in the laptops and even a fraction of the increase in voltage can damage its overall performace and quality. So, buck converter in the laptops does its job very nicely by maintaining the voltage in the processor as low as 1.8V.

Solar Chargers

• Buck converters are widely used in solar chargers. They often come with a built-in microcontroller which allows the buck converter to draw maximum power and helps in charging the battery in limited time possible.

Quad-copters

• Quad-copters come with a highly efficient buck converter for dropping down the input voltage. Quad-copter mostly uses DC power supply such as small batteries which are placed in a series. Normally 5 to 6 batteries are used to make quad-copter fully operational. These batteries provide voltage that ranges between 6 to 25 V.
• Buck converter in the batteries converts that voltage to 3.3 V for making it useful for flight controller which is a backbone of quad-copter.

This is the brief overview of buck converter, its working principle, and applications. I have tried my best to cover as many aspects as possible. However, if you still think some of your questions went unanswered, you can connect me in the comment section below. I will try my best to resolve all of your queries relating to buck converters. Will see you all in the next article. Stay Tuned!

Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

Hey Fellas! Hope you are enjoying your life and making most out of it. Today I’m going to give you a brief Introduction on the Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing. You cannot excel and grow in an electrical field if you have no idea about basic components used in circuit designing.  Don’t you worry, I have got you covered. I have tried my best to make it easy for you in understanding the basic components and what they do? So, let’s get started with Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing:

Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

A simple electrical circuit consists of resister, capacitors, inductors, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. These basic electronic components are connected by conductive wires. Current can easily flow between these wires in order to put electrical components in working conditions. You should also have a look at these different types of electronics projects, in which these basic electronic components are used a lot.

1. Resistor

Resistor is considered as a fundamental element in circuit designing.

• As the name suggests, it is used for creating resistance in the flow of current. It is widely used in many electrical and electronics components.

• Some of the elements in electronics devices are too delicate and they can burn out with a sudden increase in the flow of current. Resistor works perfectly by preventing the current from getting too high.
• The resistance of any resister is measured in ohms. The number of resisters used in electronic circuits depends on the measure of current you want to restrict, flowing through the circuit. More the resistance more is the capacity of resisting current from the circuit.

   

2. Capacitor

A capacitor is the second most commonly used component in the circuit designing.

• Working principle of a capacitor is same like a battery. It is used for the storage of electrical charge. Some circuits are designed in a way, they don’t get energy directly from DC source, DC source first charge the capacitor and output we get is basically the energy given by the capacitor.
• Capacitors come in a number of forms, but most common forms are Ceramic Disc and Electrolyte. The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in microfarad and is denoted by µF.

3. Inductor

• An inductor is a simple coil of wire used in many electrical circuits. When a current flows through the inductor it stores energy in the magnetic field of the inductor.
• Inductor allows DC to pass through it while it blocks AC source. It is mostly used in filters for separating the signals of different frequencies.

4. Diode

• A diode is a component that allows the current to flow in one direction only. It mainly consists of anode and cathode.
• Current will only flow when a positive voltage is applied to the anode side and negative voltage is applied to the cathode side. Current won’t flow in reverse order.

5. LED

• LED is a light emitting diode which works only when current flows through it. It is mainly used for indicating if the circuit is working properly.
• When we connect LED in series with the circuit and it emits light, it shows the circuit is working in perfect order.

6. Transistor

• Transistor is more like a switching device mainly used for switching and amplification purpose. It consists of three elements i.e. emitter, base, collector. A small voltage of 0.7 V between base and emitter, turns it on.
• A small amount of current on the base side is used for controlling a large amount of current on the emitter and collector side. This is the property used for amplification purpose.
• Transistor comes in two main types, NPN and PNP transistor.

7. Integrated Circuit

• An Integrated Circuit is a complete circuit that consists of transistor, diodes and other elements. All these elements are placed on the small chip of silicon. Integrated circuits are widely used in modern electronic devices such as laptops and cell phones.

8. Relay

• A replay is a simple switch that prevents bigger circuits from damaging.
• It works as an electromagnetic switch which gets triggered when a small amount of current flows through it.
• A small amount of current in the relay creates a magnetic field around the coil which is then used to turning off and on a large amount of current.

9. Battery

• DC battery is a main source of supply to operate the electrical circuits. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy that allows the current to flow.
• Different batteries can be connected in series in order to get more voltage for an electrical circuit.

That's all for today. I have covered almost all the basic components needed for circuit designing. If you have any question you can ask in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in this regard. I hope you have enjoyed the article. Brace yourself for next article. Stay tuned!

Introduction to 2n5320

Hey Fellas! Hope you are doing great. Today I am going to give you the details on Introduction to 2n5320. It is basically a Bipolar NPN (Negative Positive Negative) Transistor (BJT), which contains two layers of N-doped semiconductor and one layer of P-doped semiconductor. P, layer lies between two N layers. Here P represents the Base of the transistor and two N layers show emitter and collector respectively. This NPN transistor has a wide range of applications. It is mainly used for power amplification and switching purpose.You should also have a look at Introduction to BC547 which is also an NPN transistor. So, let's get started with Introduction to 2n5320:

Introduction to 2n5320

• 2n5320 is a bipolar Switching Silicon transistor, which is mostly used for amplification purpose.
• 2n5360 is an NPN transistor, where P doped layer exists between two N doped layers.
• In this transistor, collector supply voltage will be positive with respect to the emitter and is denoted by Vce.
• The transistor action is triggered by the free movement of electrons from its base. Actually, these electrons work like a bridge between emitter and collector.

• The voltage between collector and emitter is 75 Volt, while the voltage between base and collector is 100 Volt.
• Voltage between emitter and base is 6 V.
• Maximum DC collector current is 700 mV.
• I have shown the 2n5320 in both of its symbolical and actual form in below figure:

1. 2n5320 Pinout

2n5320 basically consists of three pins which are as follows:

• 1: Emitter
• 2: Base
• 3: Collector

Actual pinout of 2n5320 transistor is shown in the figure below:

• The small base current is used to control a large amount of current at emitter and collector.
• The control of base current on emitter and collector is basically the backbone of transistor amplifying properties.
• The transistor is considered as fully ON when a large amount of current flows through collector and emitter.
• 2n5320 is also known as a current operated device.

2. Circuit Diagram of 2n5320

• The Circuit Diagram of 2n5320 is shown in the figure given below:

• As it is NPN transistor so voltage is negative at the emitter side and positive at the base side. The base-emitter voltage can be described as Vbe.
• One thing you must take into consideration, the base voltage will always be positive with respect to the emitter.
• The current flowing through the emitter is a combination of base and collector current.
• When we divide collector current to the base current, we get the transistor current in this switching bipolar transistor and is denoted by beta ß. As it is a ratio between two current so it encompasses no units.
• The standard value of this beta is 200. The ratio between collector current and base current is actually used for amplification purpose. The value of beta ranges from 20 to 1000. We can see the value of beta from the datasheet of different manufacturers but it generally ranges between 50 to 200.
• The current gain of this transistor is defined as the ratio between collector current to the emitter current. It is represented as alpha. The value of alpha lies between 0.95 to the 0.99 and most of the cases it is considered as unity.

3. Pin Ratings of 2n5320

• The Pin ratings of 2n5320 bipolar transistor is given below.

 

• Here voltage is represented in voltage and current is denoted by ampere.
• It is a low-frequency device that has the current rating of 2A. The semiconductor used in this bipolar transistor is made up of silicon that’s why it is mostly called Switching Silicon Bipolar Transistor.

4. Mechanical Outline of 2n5320

• Mechanical Outline of 2n5320 is shown in the below figure:

• These mechanical outlines are of quite importance especially in professional projects.
• But if you working on some student engineering project then these are not for you.

5. Applications

2n5320 Bipolar Transistor has many applications in real life. Some of them are given below.

• It is used for amplification purpose.
• Used for many switching applications.
• It also works as a low frequency device.

So, that was all about 2n5320. I hope you will get something out of it. If you wanna ask something about this NPN transistor then ask in comments adn I will try my best to resolve your issues. Will meet you guys in the next tutorial. Have a good day !!! :)

Introduction to Transformer

Hey Fellas! I warmly welcome you to be here. Today I'm going to discuss the Introduction to Transformer. I'll unlock the complete details of its working principle, construction, types, and applications. It is widely used for the transformation of electrical energy. The inception of transformation has revolutionized the electrical field and made our life easy more than ever before. Because of its extensive advantages, it works as a core for electrical engineering. In today's tutorial, I have explained in detail all about Transformer but still if you got trouble anywhere, then you can ask in comments and I will try my best to resolve them. So, now let's get started with Introduction to Transformer:

1. Introduction to Transformer

• Transformer is a simple static device that helps in transferring the electrical power between two circuits.
• Transformer works on the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

• It is a process by which primary coil induces a voltage into the secondary coil with the help of magnetic induction. The coil windings are electrically isolated and magnetically connected around a common circuit called core.

• If we apply varying current in one coil, it results in creating a magnetic field and automatically induces the varying voltage in the secondary coil.
• Hence power is transmitted from one coil to another through the magnetic field.
• A slight change in current in transformers helps in increasing and decreasing the AC voltage in many electrical power applications.

Transformers are available in different sizes weighing from cubic centimeters to hundreds of tons. Without transformers it would be very difficult to transfer the power generated at the grid station to the area around the city. The high voltage and current produced at grid station can be reduced to low level which in turn helps in operating the electrical appliances at home.

2. Construction of Transformer

• A simple static transformer is a linear device that consists of coils that are mutually inductive and steel core.
• The windings in the coil are insulated from each other and from the steel core.
• The whole assembly of windings and steel core are encased in a device called tank.
• The major purpose of the tank is to insulate the core assembly from the coil windings.

• In order to take out the terminals of transformer specific bushings made up of capacitor are used.
• Added amount of oil conservator is also used in the tank which provides cooling and reduces friction.

Almost all types of transformers come with a core that is made up of laminated sheets of steel. In order to achieve continuous magnetic path, air gap between the sheets must be kept minimum. Laminated sheets of steel, with the added amount of silicon, are heat treated in order to provide low hysteresis losses and low eddy current and high permeability.

3. Mathematical Formulas for Transformer

Till now, we have seen the basic introduction and construction of Transformers, but when it comes to designing, then we have to make some mathematical derivations. In this section of this tutorial, I am gonna focus on some basic concepts of Transformers and will also share their mathematical formulas.

Turn Ratio

• Transformer has a turn ratio which dictates the operation of transformer and the value of output voltage applied to the secondary windings.
• Turn ratio is defined as a number of turns of the primary coils divided by the number of turns of secondary coil.

TR = Np /Ns

If Ns > Np then it is called step up transformer

If Np > Ns then it is called step down transformer

Transformation Ratio

• Transformation Ratio is defined as the secondary voltage divided by the primary voltage. And it is denoted by K.

K = Vs / Vp or Ns/Np

Transformer EMF Equation

• If we apply electrical source on the primary side of transformer, it will produce the magnetizing flux across the core of transformer.
• It must be a rate of change of flux that is connected to both, primary and secondary coils.
• According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, changing flux in the coil must induce EMF in it.

• Suppose the flux created forms a sinusoidal function. As it is a rate of change of flux so it must be derivative of sine function which is a cosine function.
• We can easily get the rms value of the induced EMF if we get the rms value of cosine wave and multiply it with the number of turns of coils.

• Now let's have a look at the Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

4. Types of Transformers

There are many types of transformers available in market but we can't cover them all in this tutorial. So, I am gonna just focus on those, which are used most commonly. Transformer can be differentiated into following types:

Step Up Transformer

Transformer is known as step up transformer if the number of turns of coil in secondary coil is greater than the number of turns of coil in primary coil. In other words, when transformer is used to increase the voltage on the secondary coil it is called step up transformer.

Step Down Transformer

Similarly, a transformer is known as step down transformer if the number of turns of coil in primary coil is greater than the number of turns of coil in the primary coil. Or if transformer is used to decrease the voltage on the secondary coil, it is called step down transformer.

Impedance Transformer

A transformer is called impedance transformer if it is used to deliver the same voltage to the secondary windings as applied to the primary windings. Hence output remains constant with respect to the input. This type of transformer is used for the isolation of electrical circuits or impedance matching.

Core Type Transformer

Core type transformer comes with a cylindrical coils that are form-wound. In this transformer, windings are encircled around some part of core. The cylindrical coils are insulated from each other with the help of paper or cloth and encompass high mechanical strength. Low voltage windings are arranged in a specific way to provide quick insulation with the laminated core of steel. A core type transformer is shown in the figure given below. L.V and H.V are described as Low voltage windings and High voltage windings respectively.

Shell Type Transformer

Shell type transformer comes with a steel core that covers some part of the coil windings. The coils in this transformer are also form-wound and are arranged in different layers that are insulated from each other. Such type of transformer comes in two shapes i.e. rectangular type or distributed type. It is like a disc arranged with insulated spaces, providing a horizontal cooling. Both, rectangular and distributed types of shell transformer are given in the figures below. In order to provide compact look and minimum movement, this transformer comes with a rigid bracing that combines the whole transformer at one place. Main purpose of bracing is to control vibration and provide minimum noise during operation. Both, shell type and core type transformers, encompass same characteristics but they are different with respect to cost. Shell type transformer is high in demand due to high voltage and the construction of its design. Things that are taken into consideration before buying the transformer include, heat distribution, cooling process, weight, voltage rating and kilo-watt ampere rating. Transformer comes with a tank, brushes, and oil. The oil used in the transformer provides cooling and provides insulation between steel core and coil windings. Sometimes, it happens, the tank used in the transformer doesn’t provide the required cooling effect. This is due to the quality of oil used in the tank. In order to provide accurate cooling and quick insulation, oil must be free from sulfur or alkalies. If we leave alkalies and sulfur in the oil, it causes the oil to moist, hence damaging the quality of oil quite significantly. Even the small amount of this moisture is enough to effect the quality of the oil. If operational tank doesn’t provide required cooling, then we use radiators on the sides of tank. This provides proper cooling and helps in maintaining the temperature of transformer to the required level. In order to make oil free from any moisture, tank must be sealed air-tight. This is easy to apply on the small transformers. In case of huge transformer, providing an air-tight sealing is difficult to implement, hence big chambers are used to maintain the temperature of transformers. These chambers refrain the moisture from adding in the oil. Oil decomposes quickly when it encounters with oxygen during the heating process, leaving a dark material on the transformer, which eventually, can damage the cooling process.

5. Energy Losses in Transformers

Transformers are used for the transformation of electrical energy. The coils used in the transformer are entitled to many energy losses. Some of them are given below:

Heat Loss

Heat loss is a common factor in transformer. Some form of energy is used to reduce the resistance in the transformer in order to provide steady flow of electrical energy from one coil to another. When it escapes from coils of the transformer, this energy is converted into heat which erupts the energy loss. Heat loss can be minimized by using the good conducting material in the coil or by using wires of high cross sectional area. Eddy current also pertains to heat loss. When primary coil is connected to the electrical power, it induces the alternating magnetic field in the primary coil. Same magnetic field also passes through the steel core, helps in inducing the small current in the same core which erupts heat losses. In order to overcome heat loss, steel core must be laminated perfectly. This can be achieved by placing an insulating strips in the strips of the core material. Without effecting magnetic field, these insulating strips results in reducing the eddy current.

Hysteresis Loss

Hysteresis Loss also occurs due to magnetic field passing through the core material. When magnetic field passes through the core, the core becomes real magnet with separate north and South Pole. As the magnetic field changes its direction it also allows to magnetize the core material in another direction. Energy loss happens when core is magnetized in one direction and resists the core to magnetize in another direction. Surplus energy is required to magnetize the core material in other direction. Only way to minimize the hysteresis loss is to use the core material that is made up of good magnetizing material such as iron, which can be re-magnetized easily than other materials.

6. Applications of Transformer:

After reading the whole article, you have got the clear idea what is the basic purpose of electrical transformer. It can be used in our homes, apartments, buildings and electrical appliances i.e. where electrical power is required according to our needs and requirements. Following are the some applications of transformer:

• It can be used to alternate the amount of voltage and current. When current increases, voltage decrease and when voltage increases, then current decreases i.e. P = V * I
• Value of reluctance, capacitance and resistance can be controlled by the help of transformer.
• It finds many applications when it prohibits the flow of DC current from one circuit to another.
• Transformer is also used as an impedance device where same amount of voltage is required to the output as implied to the input. Hence, it also allows the two circuit be electrically isolated.

So, that was all about Transformers. I hope you have all enjoyed it. If you have any problem then ask in comments. Will meet you guys in the next tutorial. Till then take care and have fun !!! :)                          

How to get into Engineering

Engineering is a field, which always has a lot of jobs available within, even with the onset of widespread automation. These jobs can be accessed either through university, or through an apprenticeship scheme – you will have to decide for yourself which one is the path for you. Each one has its advantages and disadvantages, as well as its detractors and proponents. One noted advantage of the apprenticeship programme is that you can learn while at the same time earning money. However, this is balanced out by the fact that there are very few apprenticeship programmes out there. When you have done your school qualifications, you will need to choose which path you want to take afterwards. University can give you certain things that an apprenticeship can’t, while an apprenticeship can give you things that a university degree can’t. When making your choices, you need to decide which will suit you best in terms of learning style, earning potential, time spent in a learning environment versus in an earning environment, what you think will be best in terms of how you see your own future, and much more.

You can Take the Hands-off Route

By far the most popular way to get started in engineering is to get an academic degree from any number of colleges or universities. To do this, people can either specialize in engineering all the way through their university careers, or they can do a different science- or maths-based degree first, and then focus on engineering in any subsequent postgraduate work they might do. Many people choose the academic route specifically because it allows for a lot of flexibility in learning, with people choosing to only go for engineering after they have first gained a degree in another scientific pursuit.

You can Take the Hands-on Route

Not everybody enjoys the type of learning and teaching style which comes with a university degree. This is where apprenticeships come in. These programmes allow their participants to work towards diplomas and other qualifications in engineering while also working as an engineer. Apprentices work and learn at specific engineering companies which are involved in the overall scheme. This gives apprentices vital experience on working on engineering projects (and earning money), such as the manufacturing of linear motion products, while also learning about engineering as a whole. Apprenticeships often promise their students a job with the company once the apprenticeship has been served (which is one reason for their popularity), because not only does the apprentice come with engineering knowledge, but also with specific knowledge of that company’s methods. The original apprenticeships are only the beginning, of course. Graduate schemes and further apprenticeships are also available, for those people who want to deepen their knowledge and experience, while also learning more about different engineering companies and their methods.

It’s Not what you Know, it’s who you Know

Networking isn’t just something which is confined to people already in the industry – people who want to break in would do well to make connections as soon as possible. Networking can take place at any type of event which is specifically aimed at engineers and other people who work in that sector – normal networking events, conferences, seminars, and others. The easiest way to keep up to date with when these are happening is to become a member of one of the chartered organizations for engineers. These organizations hold events specifically to help with networking, but also more broadly to keep everyone up to date with new developments in the world of engineering, and any issues which might arise. Networking is so important that a high up member of Jonathon Lee Recruitment (an engineering recruitment firm) told The Guardian that membership of a chartered organization, whether it was one in the UK or abroad, was growing ever more necessary in today’s world.

Be the Best you can Be

There is currently a shortage of engineers and the associated skills, but this does not mean that you can or should try and coast. Bolster your chances of being noticed – whatever your educational path – by making the most of things. Learn as much as you can to the best of your ability, and be sure to show that you have learned all there is to know. Get yourself noticed by seeking to plug the gaps in your knowledge, and make sure to subscribe to engineering publications. The most important thing to work on is your problem-solving, since a good engineer is very good at problem-solving. All our research suggests that problem solving is and will be one of the most important factors in engineering going forward, especially since our engineering will be geared more and more towards automation as time goes on. Problem-solving will give you as an engineer the means to see new paths to solving problems, and will perhaps also help show you the way to fixing potential issues before they become a problem to people in a wider circle.

What are Y-Type Strainers?

Y Type Strainers are devices used to separate unwanted solid particles from gas, liquid or steam flowing in a pipe. They derive their name from their shape. The Y-type strainer is commonly applied in pressurized fluid lines as well as in vacuums and suction conditions. It is used where small solid particles are expected within the fluid and there is a less frequent clean out. They make use of a filtering element which is basically a perforated wire mesh. In instances where the material to be cleaned out from the flow is small hence long duration before screen cleaning, the line is shut down and the strainer cap removed to allow for manual cleaning of the strainer screen. In applications with high dirt density, a blowing system is fitted so that the screen can be cleaned without the need to remove it from the strainer.

Technical Specifications of Y-Type Strainers

The technical specifications of the Y-type strainers vary according to the chemical composition of the fluid it will be handling. The material of the housing could be carbon steel or stainless steel. Carbon steel Y strainers are suitable for the transmission of oil and petrochemicals since it is resilient to mechanical and thermal shock. Stainless steel Y strainers are best suited for applications in which high resistance to corrosion is required. They are mainly applied to the pharmaceutical, food and chemical industries. Other materials are also available for the housing as well as coating. It also consists of a filter element whose material coincides with that of the housing. For instance, a Y-type strainer with carbon steel housing material has a filter element made of carbon steel. The end connection could be either flanged or threaded. The type to choose depends on the application intended. The flanged end connection is made as per one's request. The threaded end connection could be either NPT or BSP. The sizes available range from 0.5-inch to line size to 24-inch line size. Higher sizes can be made on request. The size chosen also depends on the application and the volume of fluid involved. The filtration rating also varies from 1 micron to 1000 microns. The pressure rating runs up to 100 PSI. Strainers with a higher-pressure rating can be made on request.

Applications of Y-type Strainers

In permanent applications, the Y-type strainer is the most appropriate and common. It works well in mounting horizontal and vertical pipelines. The strainer has a wide range of applications of fluid straining to protect equipment within the pipeline. If left unprotected, the pipeline would most likely end up being clogged. The applications include:

• Regulator and valve protection.
• Steam traps protection.
• Flow meter protection.
• pump protection
• Heat exchanger and refrigerating set protection.
• Protection of Instrumentation and ancillary piping item.

For all these applications the Y strainer is seen as the most appropriate. Its shape and compactness make it ideal for handling high-pressure conditions. There are Y- strainers that can handle pressures of up to 6000 PSI but they are uncommon. They are only made and applied under very extreme pressure conditions. Apart from the standard sizes and other specifications made for standard applications, the Y strainers can also be tailor-made for particular extreme conditions. In each application, the Y strainer has to be able to handle any anticipated stress without strain. Most applications of the Y strainer involve gases and liquids. There are those that are applied to handle steam. High-pressure steam changes some the dynamics of fluid flow as a result of the temperature factor. For instance, steam at a pressure of 1500 PSI will have a temperature that is above 10000 F. Carbon steel cannot handle such high temperatures and chrome moly steel is the ideal material to be used to construct a Y strainer for application in such a case. In comparison, air and natural gas applications are characteristic of very high pressures. The high pressure does not translate to high pressures in these cases and hence Y strainers made of carbon steel are ideal. The high pressures, however, require the material to be of sufficient thickness.

Advantages of Using Y-type Strainers

Using a Y strainer is a cost-effective method of straining in fluid transmission through pipelines. The Y strainers are advantageous in that they can be installed either vertically or horizontally. Other types of strainers do not have this allowance. Regardless of whether the strainer has been installed horizontally or vertically, the filtering element should be on the downstream end so that the unwanted material can be effectively collected. It is paramount to ensure that the Y strainer used is of the correct size and thickness. Some manufacture may try to reduce the size or thickness of a particular strainer to save on material. An undersized strainer may cause havoc if installed for an application it cannot handle.

Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino in Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great and having fun in your lives. In today's tutorial, we are gonna design a Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino in Proteus ISIS. You should download this Heart Beat Sensor Library V2.0 for Proteus because we are gonna use that to detect heart beat in Proteus. I have also used a 20x4 LCD which will display our heart rate value. You should download this New LCD Library for Proteus. I have counted the heart beat for ten seconds and then I have multiplied it with 6 to get the heartbeat per minute which is abbreviated as bpm (beats per minute). So, let's get started with Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino in Proteus ISIS.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	LCD 20x4	Amazon	Buy Now
2	Arduino Uno	Amazon	Buy Now

Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino in Proteus

• First of all, click the below button to download this complete Proteus simulation & Arduino code for Heart Beat Monitor:

Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino in Proteus

Proteus Simulation of Heart Rate Monitor

• Now let's have a look at How we have designed this simulation and How it works.
• So, design a simple circuit in Proteus as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have our Arduino UNO board along with LCD and Heart Beat Sensor.
• There's also a Button attached to Pin # 2, so when we press this button our Arduino will start counting the Heart Beat and will update it on the LCD.

Now let's have a look at the programming code for Heart Rate Monitor:

Arduino Code for Heart Rate Monitor

• Here's the code which I have used for this Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino:

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
#include <TimerOne.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8);

int HBSensor = 4;
int HBCount = 0;
int HBCheck = 0;
int TimeinSec = 0;
int HBperMin = 0;
int HBStart = 2;
int HBStartCheck = 0;

void setup() {
  // put your setup code here, to run once:
  lcd.begin(20, 4);
  pinMode(HBSensor, INPUT);
  pinMode(HBStart, INPUT_PULLUP);
  Timer1.initialize(800000); 
  Timer1.attachInterrupt( timerIsr );
  lcd.clear();
  lcd.setCursor(0,0);
  lcd.print("Current HB  : ");
  lcd.setCursor(0,1);
  lcd.print("Time in Sec : ");
  lcd.setCursor(0,2);
  lcd.print("HB per Min  : 0.0");
}

void loop() {
  if(digitalRead(HBStart) == LOW){lcd.setCursor(0,3);lcd.print("HB Counting ..");HBStartCheck = 1;}
  if(HBStartCheck == 1)
  {
      if((digitalRead(HBSensor) == HIGH) && (HBCheck == 0))
      {
        HBCount = HBCount + 1;
        HBCheck = 1;
        lcd.setCursor(14,0);
        lcd.print(HBCount);
        lcd.print(" ");
      }
      if((digitalRead(HBSensor) == LOW) && (HBCheck == 1))
      {
        HBCheck = 0;   
      }
      if(TimeinSec == 10)
      {
          HBperMin = HBCount * 6;
          HBStartCheck = 0;
          lcd.setCursor(14,2);
          lcd.print(HBperMin);
          lcd.print(" ");
          lcd.setCursor(0,3);
          lcd.print("Press Button again.");
          HBCount = 0;
          TimeinSec = 0;      
      }
  }
}

void timerIsr()
{
  if(HBStartCheck == 1)
  {
      TimeinSec = TimeinSec + 1;
      lcd.setCursor(14,1);
      lcd.print(TimeinSec);
      lcd.print(" ");
  }
}

• In this code, I have used a TimerOne Library which creates an interrupt after every 1sec.
• On each interrupt, it executes timerIsr() function, in which I have placed a check that whenever this interrupt will call we will increment TimeinSec variable.
• So, when TimeinSec will become equal to 10 then I am simply multiplying it with 6 and updating it on the LCD.
• So, use the above code and get your Hex File from Arduino Software and update it in your Proteus Simulation.

Simulating Heart Rate Monitor

• Now run your Proteus Simulation and you will get something as shown in the below figure:

• Now click this HB button and it will start counting the HB as well as will count the Time in seconds.
• After ten seconds it will multiply the current heart rate with six and will give the Heart Beat Per Minute.
• Here's a final image of the result:

• You can change the value of Heart Beat from the variable resistor connected with Heart Beat Sensor.
• Let's change the value of variable resistance connected to Heart Beat sensor, and have a look at the results.
• You have to press the button again in order to get the value.
• Here's the screenshot of the results obtained:

• So, now the heart is beating a little faster and we have got 108 bpm.
• If you run this simulation then you will notice that the second is quite slow which I think is because of Proteus.
• I have tested this code on hardware and it worked perfectly fine, although you need to change heart beat sensor's values in coding.
• Here's the video in which I have explained the working of this Heart Rate Monitor Simulation in detail.

So, that was all about Heart Beat Monitor using Arduino in Proteus ISIS. I hope you have enjoyed it and will get something out of it. Have a good day. :)

C945 Library for Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorials, I am gonna share a new C945 Library for Proteus. If you have searched for this transistor in Proteus, then you must have known that it's not available in Proteus. We have designed this transistor in Proteus and here's its library. If you don't know much about this transistor then you should have a look at Introduction to C945, in which I have explained in detail the basics of this transistor. Today, first of all, I will show you How to install this library and after that we will design a simple Proteus Simulation in which we will see How to simulate C945 in Proteus. You should also check this amazing list of New Proteus Libraries for Engineering Students. So, let's get started with C945 Library for Proteus:

C945 Library for Proteus

• First of all, download this C945 Library for Proteus by clicking the below button:

C945 Library for Proteus

• You will get two files in it named as:
• TransistorsTEP.IDX
• TransistorsTEP.LIB

Note:

• If you are new to Proteus 7 or 8, then you should have a look at How to add new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• Place these two files in the Library folder of your Proteus software.
• Now open you Proteus Software or restart it if its already open.
• In your Components Search box, make a search for C945 and you will get some results as shown in below figure:

• Now place this component in your Proteus work space and it will look something as shown in below figure:

• Here's our NPN transistor named as C945, its first pin is Emitter, second one is Collector and the third one is Base.
• Now let's have a look at C945 Simulation in Proteus.

C945 Simulation in Proteus

• I hope you have installed the C945 Library for Proteus Successfully.
• Now let's design a simple circuit to have a look at working of this transistor.
• You can download this simulation by clicking the above button but as always, I would suggest you to design it on your own.
• That way you can learn a lot.
• The C945 Simulation for Proteus is shown in below figure:

• I have used an opto-coupler (normally I use PC817 while designing it on hardware), which is getting a 5V signal and then I am sending that signal to the Base of C945.
• At Emitter of C945, I have connected the GND and Collector is connected to the Load.
• Here's the ON and OFF state of above circuit:

• Its quite a simple circuit and actually what we are doing is we are controlling a 12V load frm 5V signal, which normally comes from Microcontroller like Arduino or PIC Microcontroller.
• You can also assemble this circuit in hardware and can use it in your projects.
• Here's the video in which I have shown How to download this C945 Library for Proteus and also how to run C945 Proteus Simulation:

So, that was all about C945 Library for Proteus and also How to design a C945 Simulation in Proteus. I hope you have enjoyed it and can design it on your own. You can download the Library as well as this Simulation by clicking above download button. Thanks for reading. Take care !!! :)

DC Motor Control using XBee & Arduino in Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna design a project named DC Motor Control using XBee & Arduino in Proteus ISIS. I have shared the complete code and have also explained it in detail. You can also download the complete working Proteus Simulation given at the end of this tutorial. In this project, I have designed two Proteus Simulations. The first Simulation is of Remote control in which I have used a keypad. The second simulation contains our two DC Motors and I am controlling the direction of those DC Motors with my Remote Control. XBee Module is used for sending wireless data. The code will also work on hardware as I have tested it myself. So, let's get started with DC Motor Control using XBee & Arduino in Proteus ISIS:

DC Motor Control using XBee & Arduino in Proteus

• I have designed two Proteus Simulations for this project.
• The First Simulation is named as Remote Control while the second one is named as DC Motor Control.
• I am controlling the directions of these DC Motors from my Remote.
• So, let's first have a look at Remote section and then we will discuss the DC Motor Control.
• You can download both of these Proteus Simulations (explained below) and Arduino codes by clicking below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

Remote Control

• Here's the overall circuit for Remote Control designed in Proteus ISIS:

• As you can see in the above figure that we have Arduino UNO which is used as a microcontroller and then we have XBee module which is used for RF communication and finally we have Keypad for sending commands.
• You have to download this XBee Library for Proteus in order to use this XBee module in Proteus.
• You will also need to download Arduino Library for Proteus because Proteus doesn't have Arduino in it.
• The Serial Monitor is used to have a look at all the commands.
• Now next thing we need to do is, we need to write code for our Arduino UNO.
• So, copy the below code and Get your Hex File from Arduino Software.

#include <Keypad.h>

const byte ROWS = 4; //four rows
const byte COLS = 4; //three columns
char keys[ROWS][COLS] = {
  {'7','8','9', '/'},
  {'4','5','6','x'},
  {'1','2','3','-'},
  {'*','0','#','+'}
};
byte rowPins[ROWS] = {13, 12, 11, 10}; //connect to the row pinouts of the keypad
byte colPins[COLS] = {9, 8, 7, 6}; //connect to the column pinouts of the keypad

Keypad keypad = Keypad( makeKeymap(keys), rowPins, colPins, ROWS, COLS );

int KeyCheck = 0;

void setup() 
{
  Serial.begin(9600);   

}

void loop() 
{
  char key = keypad.getKey();
  
  if (key)
  {
    if(key == '1'){KeyCheck = 1; Serial.print("1");}
    if(key == '2'){KeyCheck = 1; Serial.print("2");}
    if(key == '3'){KeyCheck = 1; Serial.print("3");}
    
    if(key == '4'){KeyCheck = 1; Serial.print("4");}
    if(key == '5'){KeyCheck = 1; Serial.print("5");}
    if(key == '6'){KeyCheck = 1; Serial.print("6");}

    if(KeyCheck == 0){Serial.print(key);}
    KeyCheck = 0; 
  }

}

• The code is quite simple and doesn't need much explanation.
• First of all, I have initiated my Keypad and then I have started my Serial Port which is connected with XBee Module.
• In the Loop section, I am checking the key press and when any key is pressed our microcontroller sends a signal via XBee.
• Now let's have a look at the DC Motor Control Section.

DC Motor Control

• Here's the image of Proteus Simulation for DC Motor Control Section:

• We have already installed the XBee & Arduino Library for Proteus in the previous section.
• Here you need to install L298 Motor Driver Library for Proteus, which is not available in it.
• So here we have used two DC Motors, which are controlled with L298 Motor Driver.
• XBee is used to receive commands coming from Remote Control.
• Now use below code and get your hex file from Arduino Software:

int Motor1 = 7;
int Motor2 = 6;
int Motor3 = 5;
int Motor4 = 4;

int DataCheck = 0;

void setup() 
{
  Serial.begin(9600);
  pinMode(Motor1, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(Motor2, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(Motor3, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(Motor4, OUTPUT);
   
  digitalWrite(Motor1, HIGH);
  digitalWrite(Motor2, HIGH);
  digitalWrite(Motor3, HIGH);
  digitalWrite(Motor4, HIGH);

  Serial.print("This Arduino Code & Proteus simulation is designed by:");
  Serial.println();
  Serial.println("        www.TheEngineeringProjects.com");
  Serial.println();
  Serial.println();
  Serial.println();
   
}

void loop() 
{
  if(Serial.available())
  {
    char data = Serial.read();
    Serial.print(data);
    Serial.print("      ======== >      ");
    
    if(data == '1'){DataCheck = 1; digitalWrite(Motor2, LOW);digitalWrite(Motor1, HIGH); Serial.println("First Motor is moving in Clockwise Direction.");}
    if(data == '2'){DataCheck = 1; digitalWrite(Motor1, LOW);digitalWrite(Motor2, HIGH); Serial.println("First Motor is moving in Anti-Clockwise Direction.");}
    if(data == '3'){DataCheck = 1; digitalWrite(Motor1, LOW);digitalWrite(Motor2,  LOW); Serial.println("First Motor is Stopped");} 

    if(data == '4'){DataCheck = 1; digitalWrite(Motor3, LOW);digitalWrite(Motor4, HIGH); Serial.println("Second Motor is moving in Clockwise Direction.");}
    if(data == '5'){DataCheck = 1; digitalWrite(Motor4, LOW);digitalWrite(Motor3, HIGH); Serial.println("Second Motor is moving in Anti-Clockwise Direction.");}
    if(data == '6'){DataCheck = 1; digitalWrite(Motor3, LOW);digitalWrite(Motor4,  LOW); Serial.println("Second Motor is Stopped.");}

    if(DataCheck == 0){Serial.println("Invalid Command. Please Try Again !!! ");}
    Serial.println();
    DataCheck = 0;
  }

}

• In this code, I am receiving commands from my remote and then changing the direction of my DC Motors.
• When it will get '1', it will move the first motor in Clockwise Direction.
• When it will get '2', it will move the first motor in Anti-Clockwise Direction.
• When it will get '3', it will stop the first motor.
• When it will get '4', it will move the second motor in Anti-Clockwise Direction.
• When it will get '5', it will move the second motor in Clockwise Direction.
• When it will get '6', it will stop the second motor.
• It will say Invalid Commands on all other commands.
• Now let's have a look at its working & results.

Working & Results

• Now run both of your Simulations and if everything goes fine, then you will have something as shown in below figure:

• Now when you will press buttons from keypad then DC Motors will move accordingly.
• Here's an image where I have shown all the commands.

So, that's all for today. I hope you have enjoyed today's project in which we have designed DC Motor Control using XBee & Arduino in Proteus ISIS. Thanks for reading !!! :)

ECG Digitization in MATLAB

Buy This Project Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, I am going to show you How to do ECG Digitization in MATLAB. If you are new to ECG signals then you should have a look at Introduction to ECG. I have also posted many different simulations on ECG in which I have extracted different features of ECG signals but in today's tutorial, we are gonna extract the ECG signal itself from its image. I have also saved this ECG signal in a txt file so that you can use it. This code is not open source and you can buy it from our shop by clicking the above button. I have designed a GUI in MATLAB and it will take image of ECG signal as an input and then will give the digital form of that ECG signal as an output. There are few restrictions on this code and its not necessary that it will work on all images of ECG signal, but I am sure it will work on most of them. I have also added three images in the folder which works great with this code. You should also have a look at ECG Simulation using MATLAB and ECG Averaging in MATLAB. So, let's get started with ECG Digitization in MATLAB:

ECG Digitization in MATLAB

• When you will buy this MATLAB code, you will get an rar file.
• Extract this rar file and it will contain below files in it:

• You need to run Main.m file which is a MATLAB file.
• Open this file in MATLAB and run it.
• If everything goes fine then it will open up as shown in below figure:

• Click this button which says Load Image File.
• When you click this button, it will open up a dialog box as shown in below figure:

• Here you need to select the image of ECG signal, which you want to digitize.
• So, I am selecting ECG1.png and the results are shown in below figure:

• The first axes is showing the ECG Image file as it is.
• I have converted this ECG Image File into Gray Scale which is shown in axes 2.
• Further, I have converted this Dray Scale Image into Binary Image which is shown in axes 3.
• If you have noticed we have a blue line in ECG Binary Image.
• I have added this line and taken it as an x-axis, the algo is reading the values of black pixels and then subtracting it from this x axis line.
• In this way, I am getting my complete ECG Signal and the Axes 4, which is named as ECG Signal, is displaying this digital ECG Signal.
• I have converted pixels into mV, which you can change by yourself in the code.

So, that was all about ECG Digitization in MATLAB. If you got into any trouble regarding this project then you can ask in comments and I will try my best to resolve them. Thanks for reading !!! :)