The Engineering Projects

Introduction to LM358

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to LM358. LM-358 consists of two independent high gain frequency compensated operational amplifier. They are specially designed to operate from a single supply or split supplies over a wide range of voltages. LM-358 have lot of amazing features associated with them. These features include wide supply ranges, low supply current drain, independent of supply voltage, wide unity gain bandwidth, ground includes I common mode input voltage range, low input bias, open loop differential voltage gain, internally frequency compensation etc. LM 358 has a lot real life applications e.g. Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) circuits, transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks etc. LM-358 is available in as small size as chip. It is most commonly used device due to its cost efficiency. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM358

LM 358 consists of two independent high gain frequency compensated Operational Amplifier (Op-amp). These are designed for the operation of this device from single supply or split supplies for a wide range of voltages. LM-358 real life applications include DC gain blocks, active filters, transducer amplifier, Op-amp circuit design etc. Further detail about LM 358 will be given later in this tutorial.

1. LM358 Pinout

• LM 358 has eight (8) pins in total having different individual functions associated with each of them.
• All the pins along with their sequence number are given in the table shown below.

2. LM358 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of LM-358 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of LM 358 is shown in the figure below.

3. LM358 Packages

• LM 358 has four (4) different type of packages DSBGA, PDIP, TO-CAN and SOT-23(5).
• All of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. LM358 Symbolic Representation

• Symbolic for of a device shows its internal circuitry.
• LM 358 symbolic representation is shown in the figure below.

   

5. LM358 Ratings

• The voltage, current and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided LM-358 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. LM358 Advantages

• LM-358 has several different advantages, a few of which are given below.
• There is no need of dual supply.
• Compatibility with all forms of logic.
• Two Op-amps, compensated internally.
• Power drain suitable for battery operation.
• Direct sensing near ground.

7. LM358 Applications

• LM 358 has a wide range of real life applications, few of the major applications are given below.
• DC gain blocks.
• General signal conditioning.
• Transducer amplifiers.
• General signal amplification.
• Active filters.
• Operational amplifier circuits.
• Current loop transmitters for 4 to 20mA.

7. LM358 Proteus Simulation

• I have also designed a Proteus Simulation of LM358 which will give you better idea of its working.
• In this simulation, I have designed a small automatic LED ON OFF circuit depending on LDR value.
• The image is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached the LDR at input pins while the LED is attached at the output pin of LM358.
• Now when LDR is dark, then LED will remain OFF but when LDR will come in Light then LED will also turn ON.
• The variable resistor is used for sensitivity purposes.
• In the below image I have shown its ON state:

• You can see in above figure that now LED is ON because LDR is in LIGHT.
• You can download this LM358 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM358. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try my level best to sort out your problems in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 here to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will surely share all of them with you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

How to Choose the Best Cheap Android Tablet within Your Budget

Tablets are great devices for active and busy people. It’s a convenient device to carry with you and if you’re a business person, it can make working on the road a lot more pleasant than simply using your smartphone. However, buying a tablet isn’t necessarily easy, as you have so many options available. It can be even trickier if you are working with a specific budget – you want to make sure you get the best tablet money can buy. They help you out, here are some tips on how to choose the best Android tablet within your budget.

Set your budget

You must start your tablet hunt by setting yourself a budget. It’s important you look at the bank account and think carefully how much you are able to and willing to spend on the new device. In terms of the pricing, there are different things that affect the price tag. The screen size, configuration, battery and brand are just some of the things that can increase or decrease the price. However, as a rule of thumb, it’s good to know that a cheap tablet costs anything from $100 to $150, while a higher-performing tablet will generally cost around $300 to $500. Anything beyond that will be a super performing tablet – often almost like a laptop in terms of performance.

Pick your chosen screen size and screen resolution

So, let’s start by looking at the some of the elements you need to consider and which will also impact the price. One of the first things you need to think is the screen size. Tablets can be as small as 6-inch or as big as 12-inch. The bigger your device’s screen, the more it will cost. If you are using the tablet just to browse the Internet, chatting with friends, reading books and so on, a 7 to 8-inch tablet will be sufficient. If you are looking to spend a lot of time working or playing games on the tablet, you probably want something above 10-inch. You should also consider the screen resolution and what you need from it. Again, if you are working on the tablet and you work with images, you definitely require as good resolution as you can get. In general, a 1280x800 pixel is a decent resolution but if you just need the tablet for occasional use, you can find cheaper models with fewer pixels.

Think about the performance and tablet configuration

Configuration refers to the hardware on the tablet and this is important in terms of performance and price. If you want something cheap, then Octa-Core or Mediatek processor with around 1 to 2GB of RAM will probably be the best configuration for you. Anything beyond these will cost a bit more but will also help your tablet perform better. In terms of storage, an 8GB storage is cheap but it can be rather laggy. You can improve it with an external SD card. If you don’t want to buy an SD card, you should have at least 16GB of internal storage.

Pick the extra functions you need

Of course, tablets come with additional features. The two main features that will impact the price are the camera and the speakers. You need to carefully consider how important these functions are to you. If you think you won’t take many photos with your tablet, then you shouldn’t waste money on a good camera. If you are going to listen to a lot of music on your tablet or watch movies on it, you want to get a tablet with good quality speakers. The good news is that most of today’s tablets actually come with two built-in speakers, which enhances the quality of sound. Unless you are buying a super cheap tablet, the sound quality should be sufficient without you having to pay a lot of extra.

Consider the different brands

Perhaps the biggest influencing factor in terms of the price is the brand. You can now find thousands of tablet models from hundreds of brands and some of them cost a lot more than others. The top manufacturers with the priciest tablets come from brands like Samsung, Lenovo, Acer and ASUS. If you want to find something cheaper but with a decent configuration, you might want to consider opting for a Chinese brand. Chinese tablets are becoming much better in term of configuration and performance with affordable prices. Chuwi or Tablet Express are some of the cheaper Chinese models to keep in mind.

Look for discounts

Now, just because a tablet has a specific price tag attached to it, it doesn’t mean it necessarily will cost you this much. Indeed, retailers are always offering discounts and these can help you cut down the price further. So, before you buy a tablet always check if you can find a higher performing model for the same price with the help of discount codes. When it comes to finding the best cheap Android tablet, these tips will help you shop within your budget.

Introduction to LM339

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to LM339. LM339 belongs to the family of devices having 4 independent voltage comparators. Each comparator is designed in such a way that it is capable of operating from a single power source over a wide range of power supplies. It can also operate for split power supplies. There is a unique characteristic of comparators, Input Common-Mode Voltage Range (I_CMR) includes a ground even when it is operating from a single power supply voltage.

Basically, LM339 is a comparator IC having four built-in comparators. The basic purpose of a comparator is to rotate the signal between analog and digital domains. At its input terminal, it compares the two different input voltages applied, gives digital output and indicates the larger input applied at the input terminal.

Introduction to LM339

LM 339 is a comparator IC having 4 builtin comparators. A comparator rotates a signal between digital and analog domain. First of all, it compares the 2 different inputs applied at the input terminal and then gives the output in digital form in order to indicate which of the input applied has a larger amplitude. It has a lot of real life applications e.g. basic comparator, driving CMOS, driving TTL, low frequency op-amp, Transducer amplifier etc. Further detail about the particular IC will be given later in this tutorial.

1. LM339 Pinout

• LM 339 has fourteen (14) pins in total including four inverting input pins, four non inverting pins, four output pins, voltage and ground pin.
• All of the pins along with their sequence number are shown in the table given below.

2. LM339 Pins Configuration

• The properly labeled LM 339 pin configuration diagram is shown in the figure below, for the better understanding of the reader (specially the students).

3. LM339 Packages

• LM 339 has different packages including LM-339DG, LM-339NG etc.
• A few of the packages are given in the table shown below.

4. LM339 Features

• There are several different features associated with LM 339.
• A few of the major features including low supply current, low input bias current, low input offset current, low output saturation voltage etc. are taken into account.
• The major features along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM339 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power rating associated with LM 339 are given along with their typical values and SI units, in the table shown below.

LM339 Applications

There is a wide range of applications associated with LM 339 comparator IC. A few of the major applications along with their designed circuits are explained below.

Basic comparator

• The circuit designed for Basic Comparator is shown in the figure below:

You can see from the above figure that the basic comparator consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages and a15K resistor.

Driving CMOS

• The circuit designed for Driving CMOS is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the driving CMOS consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages and a 100K resistor.

Low frequency op-amp

• The circuit designed for Low Frequency Op-amp is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Low Frequency Op-amp consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 15K resistor and a 100K resistor having voltage gain of around 100.

Transducer Amplifier

• The circuit designed for Transducer Amplifier is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Transducer amplifier consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 3K resistor, a 20M resistor and two 10K resistors.

Zero crossing detector

• The circuit designed for Zero Crossing Detector is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Transducer amplifier consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 10K resistor, a 20M resistor, three 5.1K resistor, two 100K resistors and 1N4148 diode.
• There are few other applications associated with LM 339 and are given below.
• Limit comparator.
• Crystal controlled oscillator.
• Negative reference comparator.
• Driving TTL

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM339. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you are facing any kind of problem, you can freely ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a proper way, if possible. Moreover, our team is also available 24/7 for your guidance. I will explore different IC’s and transistors in my upcoming tutorial and will surely share them with you as well. So, till then Take Care :)

Introduction to LM324

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to elaborate about the Introduction to LM324. It is an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) consists of four channels. Its a low cost device having true differential inputs.For single supply applications LM 324 are superior to the other operational amplifiers. LM-324 is capable of operating at the minimum voltage up to 3V and at the high voltage levels up to 32V. One of the major advantage of LM-324 is that common mode input range includes negative supply which eliminates the need of external biasing. Negative power supply voltage is also included in output voltage range. This device is lead (Pb) free, halogen free and RoHS compliant. It consists of four amplifiers per package. LM 324 real life applications include conventional amplifier circuits, transducer amplifier, DC gain blocks etc. Further detail about LM324 e.g. its pins configuration, thermal and electrical characteristics, its features and applications will be explained in detail later in this tutorial. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM324

LM324 is an operational amplifier consists of four channels. It is most commonly used amplifier due to its low cost factor. It consists of four amplifiers per package and is superior to other amplifiers for single supply applications. Negative power supply included in common mode input and output range eliminates the need of external biasing. It has several different applications e.g. DC gain blocks, transducer amplifiers, conventional amplifier circuits etc. LM 324 is shown in the figure given below.

1. LM324 Pinout

• We must know the description of each pin before using any of the devices for its appropriate use.
• LM-324 has fourteen (14) pins in total having different individual functions associated with them.
• All of the fourteen pins along with their names are given in chronological order in the table shown below.

2. LM324 Configurations

• Each of the pin should be clearly labeled, if someone is going to use any device for the first time or after a long time.
• Properly labeled pinout diagram of any device results in better understanding of its functionality.
• So, I have made a completely labeled diagram for LM 324 pinout, you can see it in the figure shown below.

3. LM324 Packages

• LM-324 has four different type of packages having different individual dimensions.
• The packages include TSSOP, SOIC, CDIP and PDIP.
• ALl of the above packages are given along with their dimensions, in the table shown below.

4. LM324 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of any device indicates its power requirements i.e. the amount of current and voltage at which a particular device starts its operation properly.
• The current, voltage and power ratings of LM-324 are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM324 Schematic Diagram

• The schematic diagram of a device helps to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided a schematic diagram of LM-324 as shown in the figure below.

• From the above figure, you can see that LM 324 consists of four amplifiers per package.
• The inputs of these amplifiers are connected to the pin number 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12 and 13  respectively.
• The output of these amplifiers are connected to 1, 7, 8 and 14 pins.

6. LM324 Applications

There are different LM324 real life applications, a few of which are given below.

• Conventional amplifier circuits
• Transducer amplifier.
• DC gain blocks.

6. LM324 Proteus Simulation

• You should have a look at Automatic Street Light Project in Proteus, I have used LM324 in this simulation.
• I have also designed an LM324 Proteus Simulation so that you can get better idea of its working.
• I have designed a simple circuit in which LED goes ON or OFF automatically depending on LDR value.
• It's OFF state is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached LDR at inputs while the LED at its output.
• Variable resistor is used for controlling the sensitivity of LDR sensor.
• It's ON state is shown in below figure:

• You can download this LM324 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM324. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of issues you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/ here to entertain you. I will explore further IC's in my upcoming tutorials and will surely shre them with you as well. So, till then take care :)

Introduction to PIC18F4550

Hello friends I hope you all are doing great. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to PIC18F4550. Its one of the most renowned PIC Microcontroller and is used in almost every field. You should also have a look at my previous tutorial Introduction to PIC16F877a, as it will also be helpful. PIC18F4550 also has 40 Pins and is quite similar to PIC16F877a with some additional features. In today's post we will get the general overview of this microcontroller, which is very essential if you wanna start working on it. If you have any problem in any part of it then ask your questions in comments and I will try my best to resolve them out. So, now let's get started with Introduction to PIC18F4550:

Introduction to PIC18F4550

PIC18F4550 is a 8-bit and 40-Pin PIC Microcontroller which belongs to PIC18 Family and has a Program Memory of 32KB, RAM of 2048Bytes, EEPROM Memory of 256Bytes and CPU Speed of 12MIPS. It is mostly used in embedded projects and is quite used in Engineering Projects. Few of its main features are:

• It has five Ports on it starting from Port A to Port E.
• It has below mentioned Ports for Data Communication.
• USB Port
• Serial Port
• I2C Port
• It also has interrupt functionality in it and we can place any kind of interrupt in it.
• Here's the Pin Diagram of PIC18F4550:

• Each Pin of PIC18F4550 can perform more than one task, as you can see in above figure that Pins are having more than one label.
• So, now again we have to design its Basic Circuit as we did for PIC16F877a.

1. PIC18F4550 Basic Circuit

• As I have mentioned in my previous tutorial on PIC16F877a that each PIC Microcontroller needs a Basic circuit, this basic circuit is like a a power supply to PIC Microcontroller.
• You must be wondering why am I forcing again and again to read previous tutorial on PIC16F877a, its because I have discuss that tutorial quite in detail and no matter what PIC Microcontrolelr you are using that basic information will remain the same. So again must read that tutorial. :)
• Anyways here's the PIC18F4550 Basic Circuit:

• If you remember than its exactly the same as for PIC16F877a, so I am not gonna explain it much.
• All the Grounded lines are shown in black color and Power Lines with +5V are shown with Red Lines.
• We also have Crystal Oscillator for frequency here connected to Pin # 12 & Pin # 13.
• Now, let's have a look at PIC18F4550 Ports:

2. PIC18F4550 Ports

• Again it has same Ports as of our Previous Microcontroller starting from Port A to Port E.

• PIC16F877a has 5 Ports in total which are:
  • Port A: It has 6 Pins in total starting from Pin # 2 to Pin # 7.
  • Port B: It has 8 Pins in total starting from Pin # 33 to Pin # 40.
  • Port C: It has 8 Pins in total. It’s pins are not aligned together. First four Pins of Port C are located at Pin # 15 – Pin # 18, while the last four are located at Pin # 23 – Pin # 26.
  • Port D: It has 8 Pins in total. It’s pins are also not aligned together. First four Pins of Port D are located at Pin # 19 – Pin # 22, while the last four are located at Pin # 27 – Pin # 30.
  • Port E: It has 3 Pins in total starting from Pin # 8 to Pin # 10.

3. PIC18F4550 Compiler

• Their official Compiler is available online at Microchip website and can be used free of cost.
• I use MikroC Pro for PIC Compiler which you can download from their official site and it has a demo version but you have to buy the full version.
• You should also read this list of Top 3 PIC C Compiler.

4. PIC18F4550 USB Communication

• Here's the main reason of PIC18F4550's popularity, it supports USB Communication.
• Here's the simplest circuit diagram for PIC18F4550 USB Communication, I will post tutorial on it soon.

• So, we can do the PIC18F4550 USB Communication by using below two Pins:
  1. Pin # 23: (D-)
  2. Pin # 24: (D+)

5. PIC18F4550 Serial Communication

• We can also do the PIC18F4550 Serial Communication.
• PIC18F4550 Serial Communication Pins are shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that below two pins are used for PIC18F4550 Serial Communication:
• Pin # 25 (TX).
• Pin # 26 (RX).

Moreover, it also supports I2C communication and it also has interrupts in it. So, that's all for today. I hope you got something out of it. :) Will meet you guys in next tutorial till then take care and have fun !!! :)

Introduction to PIC16F877a

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great and having fun with your lives. Today, I am going to give you guys a detailed Introduction to PIC16F877a. It's the most commonly used PIC Microcontroller because of its operational flexibility, availability and low cost. You can buy this PIC Microcontroller from almost every online electronic shop for just $2 - $3.

If you are new to PIC Microcontroller then read this complete post carefully and ask your queries in the comments. You should also have a look at this video in which I have given an Introduction to PIC16F877a:

Note:

• You can download PIC16F877a Datasheet by Clicking below button:

Download PIC16F877a Datasheet

Introduction to PIC16F877a

• PIC16F877a is a 40-pin PIC Microcontroller, designed using RISC architecture, manufactured by Microchip and is used in Embedded Projects.
• It has five Ports on it, starting from Port A to Port E.
• It has three Timers in it, two of which are 8-bit Timers while 1 is of 16 Bit.
• It supports many communication protocols like:
  • Serial Protocol.
  • Parallel Protocol.
  • I2C Protocol.
• It supports both hardware pin interrupts and timer interrupts.
• Here's the PIC16F877a Pin Diagram, I have mentioned the names of all the Pins and have also given different colors to different Ports.

• The above image gives you the overall idea of PIC16F877a Pins and Ports.
• You should also have a look at Introduction to Atmega328, it's another microcontroller, you should compare them.

Important Note:

• You can see in the above image that pins of PIC Microcontroller have more than one name, its because each pin of PIC can perform multiple tasks.
• For example, check Pin # 25, it can be used as a digital Port C Pin # 6 (RC6) and can also be used as a Transmitter (TX) for serial communication.
• So, you have to specify in the programming, how you want to use these pins.

• In the next section, I am going to explain all of these Pin features one by one.
• So, first of all, we are going to have a look at the Basic circuit of PIC16F877a:

PIC16F877a Basic Circuit

• Each Microcontroller has a basic circuit and if you won't design the basic circuit, it won't work.
• It's just like providing power to your PIC Microcontroller and it works on +5V level.
• If you want to turn ON the fan then what will you do? You will simply provide it power and that's what we are going to do with a PIC.
• But in this case, along with power, we also need to provide the frequency at which it will operate.
• So, now we know that we need to design the basic circuit and this basic circuit contains power as well as the frequency at which it will operate.
• In order to provide frequency to PIC Microcontroller, we use a crystal oscillator and for PIC16F877a, you can use a crystal oscillator of frequency range from 4MHz to 40MHz.
• So, here's the PIC16F877a Basic Circuit which you need to design:

• I have tried my best to make this PIC16F877a basic circuit as simple as possible.
• The above circuit may seem a bit complex but it is really not, let me explain it pin by pin:
  • Pin # 1: This Pin is called MCLR (Master Clear) and we need to provide 5V to this pin through a 10k-ohm resistance.
  • Pin # 11 & Pin # 32: These Pins are labeled as Vdd so we also need to provide it +5V and you can see these lines are in red color in above figure.
  • Pin # 12 & Pin # 31: These Pins are Vss, so we have provided GND (Ground) at this pin and its lines are in black color.
  • Pin # 13 & 14: These Pins are named OSC1 (Oscillator 1) and OSC2 (Oscillator 2), now we have to attach our Crystal Oscillator (16MHz) at these pins which I have lined in Orange color. After the Crystal Oscillator, we have 33pF capacitors and then they are grounded.
• We have designed our basic circuit and now our PIC Microcontroller is ready to work but you can also see an LED attached at Pin # 21 and that's because we also need to check whether it's running or not so we can turn this LED ON or OFF.
• You should have a look at LED Blinking Project on PIC Microcontroller, in which I have blinked the LED using PIC Microcontroller.
• Here's the video in which I have designed this PIC16F877a basic circuit:

PIC16F877a Pinout

• So, now I hope that you got the complete understanding of PIC16F877a Basic Circuit, so now if you have noticed that in the basic circuit, we have used all the power pins of PIC Microcontroller, while all the Ports Pins were free.
• So, now as we have powered up our PIC Microcontroller, the next thing we need to do is to design some code and use the PIC Microcontroller Ports. First, let's have a look at these PIC16F877a Ports.
• PIC16F877a has 5 Ports in total which are:
  • Port A: It has 6 Pins in total starting from Pin # 2 to Pin # 7. Port A Pins are labeled from RA0 to RA5 where RA0 is the label of the first Pin of Port A.
  • Port B: It has 8 Pins in total starting from Pin # 33 to Pin # 40. Port B Pins are labeled from RB0 to RB7 where RB0 is the label of the first Pin of Port B.
  • Port C: It has 8 Pins in total. Its pins are not aligned together. The first four Pins of Port C are located at Pin # 15 - Pin # 18, while the last four are located at Pin # 23 - Pin # 26.
  • Port D: It has 8 Pins in total. Its pins are also not aligned together. The first four Pins of Port D are located at Pin # 19 - Pin # 22, while the last four are located at Pin # 27 - Pin # 30.
  • Port E: It has 3 Pins in total starting from Pin # 8 to Pin # 10. Port E Pins are labeled from RE0 to RE2 where RE0 is the label of the first Pin of Port E.
• All these Ports are labeled in the below figure:

• You can see all these PIC16F877a Ports in the above figure, now let's have a look at how to use them.
• First of all, what you need to decide is whether you want your Port Pins to be Input or Output.
• Confused? :P Let's suppose you have some sensor and you want to get its value, then you have to connect this sensor with PIC Microcontroller, now in this case your PIC Pin will be acting as Input Pin because it will be inputting value from the sensor. The sensor is sending the value and PIC is receiving it.
• But in the case of a DC Motor Control with PIC, you have to send commands from PIC Microcontroller to DC Motor, so your PIC Pin is acting as Output Pin.

Important Note:

• Each Port of PIC Microcontroller is associated with two registers, for examples Port D registers are:
  • PortD.
  • TRISD.
• Both of these registers are of 8 bit because Port D contains 8 Pins.
• TRISD decides whether the Port is output or input and we can also assign values to each pin separately. If we have assigned 0 then it will be OUTPUT and if we have provided 1 then it will be INPUT.
• For example, if I have assigned TRISD = 0x01, then the first 7 pins of Port D will be Output but the last pin will be input because 0x01 is actually 00000001 in binary.
• PortD register contains the actual value and this value is actually the combination of all 8 pins.

PIC16F877a Compiler

• The official Compiler of the PIC Microcontroller is MPLAB C18 Compiler, which is available online from Microchip Official Site.
• There are also other compilers available and the one I normally use is MikroC Pro For PIC.
• You should have a look at this list of Top 3 PIC C Compilers.
• We write code in PIC Compilers and then compile it. After compilation, a hex file is generated which we upload in PIC Microcontroller using a programmer/burner.

PIC16F877a Serial Port

• PIC16F877a has one serial port in it which is used for data communication.
• In the below figure, I have mentioned the Serial Pins of PIC16F877a.

• AS you can see in the above figure that:
  • Pin # 25 is acting as TX as well so if you want to do Serial Communication then it will be used for sending the serial data.
  • Pin # 26 is acting as RX as well so if you want to do Serial Communication then it will be used for receiving the serial data.
• You should also have a look at What is Serial Port if you don't know much about Serial Port.

PIC16F877a I2C Communication

• PIC16F877a also has one I2C Port using which we can easily do the I2C Communication.
• These PIC16F877a I2C Communication Pins are shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, PIC16F877a I2C Communication Pins are:
• Pin # 18: It is acting as SCL which is an abbreviation of Serial Clock Line.
• Pin # 23: It is acting as SDA which is an abbreviation of Serial Data Line.
• Now you can see we have Serial Port and I2C Port in Port C, so we can use Port C as a simple Port but can also do these two communications with its pins, so its totally on the programmer.

PIC16F877a Interrupts

• I hope you all know about interrupts, if not then you should have a look at Interrupts in PIC Microcontroller.
• PIC16F877a has 8 interrupt sources in it. An interrupt source is some event that generates interrupt, this source could be a timer like interrupts are generated after every 1 sec, or it could also be pin state change event, like if pin state is changed then interrupt will be generated.
• So, PIC16F877a Interrupts can be generated by following 8 ways:
  1. External Interrupts.
  2. Timer Interrupts ( Timer0 / Timer1).
  3. Port B State Change.
  4. Parallel Slave Port Read/Write.
  5. A/D Converter.
  6. Serial Receive / Transmit.
  7. PWM (CCP1 / CCP2).
  8. EEPROM Write Operation.
• PIC16F877a Interrupts are associated with below 5 registers:
  • INTCON
  • PIE1
  • PIR1
  • PIE2
  • PIR2

So, that was all about PIC16F877a, I hope you have enjoyed today's tutorial. I have tried my best to cover all aspects of this PIC Microcontroller and I would suggest you to read the links which I have provided in each section. These links will also help you more because they are focusing on that particular topic. If you have any problem with this Introduction to PIC16F877a, then you can ask in the comments below. Thanks for reading. Take care and have fun !!! :)

Introduction to TL494

Hello everyone I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge on Introduction to TL494. It supports all of the functions that are necessary for the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control circuits. Power supply control is the basic purpose of the TL494 device. It has an output control circuit, a flipflop, dead time comparator, two different error amplifiers, 5V reference voltage, oscillator and a PWM comparator. TL 494 operates properly between the frequency of 1kHz to 300kHz. The Dead Time Comparator (DTC) provides around 5% of dead time. Both of the error amplifiers display a common-mode voltage from -0.3V to (Vcc-2)V. If we provide a sawtooth wave at the CT terminal and terminate RT to the reference output (Vref), the oscillator will be bypassed. The internal circuit of TL 494 resists the double pulse at the output. TL494 has a wide range of applications e.g. microwave ovens, PCs, washing machines, Solar power inverters, solar microinverters, smoke detectors etc. Further detail about this device will be given later in this tutorial.

Introduction to TL494

TL 494 is a chip that deals with all of the functions required for Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control circuits. It consists of two error amplifiers, oscillator, flipflop, 5V reference voltage, dead time comparator, PWM comparator etc. The range of the operating frequency for this device is from 1kHz to 300kHz. TL 494 can be used in washing machines, microwave ovens, solar power inverters, solar microinverters, smoke detectors etc.

1. TL494 Pinout

• TL494 has 16 pins in total, all of the pins are provided along with their names in the table shown below:
  1. Pin # 1: Non-Inverting Input.
  2. Pin # 2: Inverting Input.
  3. Pin # 3: Feedback.
  4. Pin # 4: Dead Time Control.
  5. Pin # 5: CT.
  6. Pin # 6: RT.
  7. Pin # 7: Ground (GND).
  8. Pin # 8: C1.
  9. Pin # 9: E1.
  10. Pin # 10: E2.
  11. Pin # 11: C2.
  12. Pin # 12: Voltage (Vcc).
  13. Pin # 13: Output Control.
  14. Pin # 14: Reference Voltage.
  15. Pin # 15: Inverting Input.
  16. Pin # 16: Non Inverting Input.

2. TL494 Pin Configuration

• The properly labeled diagram for the TL 494 pins is shown in the figure below.

Modified Sine Wave using TL494

• Here's a circuit where TL494 is used as a standalone IC to generate modified Sine Wave:

TL494 Packages

• There are several different packages of TL 494, a few of which are given below.

TL494 Ratings

• The current and power ratings of TL494 are provided in the table shown below.

TL494 Features

• The features associated with the device TL494 are provided in the table shown below.

TL494 Internal Block Diagram

• The internal block diagram of TL 494 is shown in the figure given below.

TL494 Functional Block Diagram

• The functional block diagram of TL 494 is shown in the figure below.

TL494 Applications

TL 494 has a wide range of applications, a few of which are given below.

• AC/DC Power supply.
• E-Bikes.
• Server PSUs.
• Dual controller.
• Personal Computers.
• Smoke detectors.
• Washing machines.
• Solar power inverter.
• Microwave Ovens.

Note:

• I will upload its Proteus Simulation soon in this tutorial.

So that is all from the tutorial, Introduction to TL494, I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of problems you can ask me in the comments anytime you want without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 here to entertain you. I will explore different hardware and software sections in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

BC547: Datasheet, Pinout, Working, Applications and Simulation

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to BC547. It is an NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT), mainly used for switching and current amplification.

Its maximum current gain is around 800. So, let's have a detailed overview of BC 547.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	BC547	Amazon	Buy Now

Introduction to BC547

• BC547 is a 3-Terminal NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT), mostly used for switching purposes and current amplification.
• BC547 Pins(Terminals) from left to right are called:
  • Collector.
  • Base.
  • Emitter.
• Depending on the voltage applied at Base Terminal, BC547 can operate in two states, named:
  • Forward Biased.
  • Reverse Biased.

BC547 as Reverse Biased

• If Base Terminal is connected to the Ground(0V), Collector and Emitter will act as an open switch and the transistor is said to be acting as Reverse Biased.
• In a Reverse Biased State, no current will flow through the transistor.

BC547 as Forward Biased

• If a HIGH signal(normally 5V) is provided at the Base Terminal, Collector and Emitter will start acting as a closed switch and the transistor is said to be acting as Forward Biased.
• In Forward Biased State, the current will start flowing from Collector to Emitter.
• The maximum Collector current limit of BC547 is 110mA, so the load must be lower than that.

• Now let's have a look at the datasheet of BC547:

BC547 Datasheet

• If you want to get in-depth knowledge about any electronic component, then you should read its datasheet.
• You can download BC547 Datasheet by clicking the below button:

Download BC547 Datasheet

• Now, let's have a look at the pinout of BC547:

BC547 Pinout

• BC547 Pinout consists of 3 pins in total, named: Collector(C), Base(B) and Emitter(E).
• All of these three pins along with their symbols are shown in the below table:

BC547 Pins Configuration

• The properly labeled pin configuration diagram of BC 547 along with its animation is shown in the figure given below.

• In the last section, we will design a Proteus Simulation of BC547, which will give you a better understanding of How to use these pins of BC547.

BC547 Transistor Working

• As we know BC547 is an NPN transistor, so in its design, a P-region(Base) is sandwiched between two N-type regions.
• At the border of the P and N, a depletion region is created, which blocks the flow of charge carriers from one region to another.
• When the input voltage is applied at its Base terminal, some amount of current starts to flow from the base to the emitter and controls the current at the collector.
• The voltage between the base and the emitter (VBE), is negative at the emitter and positive at the base terminal for its NPN construction.
• The polarity of voltages applied for each junction is shown in the figure below:

BC547 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of BC547 along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

• Moreover, the storage temperature, as well as operating temperature for the transistor BC 547, is also given in the table shown above.

BC547 Thermal Characteristics

• The thermal characteristics associated with BC 547 are provided along with typical values, in the table shown below.

BC547 Applications

• There are a lot of applications associated with BC547, a few of the major applications are given below.
  • BC547 can be used for switching purposes.
  • We can also use it for amplification purposes.

BC547 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a simple Proteus ISIS simulation using BC 547 for the control of the DC motor.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• By pressing the button encircled in the figure above, you will be able to observe the working of the DC motor.
• I have made another simulation for DC motor control using Arduino UNO and BC 547.
• The simulation's screenshot is shown in the figure below.

• The source code for the above simulation is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

 

• First of all, you need to change the logic state from 0 to 1, after uploading the hex file, the motor will automatically start to rotate.

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to BC547. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you are facing any sort of problem regarding anything, you can ask me in the comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is also 24/7 there to entertain you. I will explore further hardware equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to LM741

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you an Introduction to LM741. It belongs to the series of general purpose amplifiers. It supports larger range of input voltages. LM741 provides high gain and short circuit protection as well. Its pins configuration is very similar to UA709 and there is no need of frequency compression in LM 741. LM741 can be used as a comparator in order to determine the levels of applied input voltages i.e. either smaller or larger input voltages are applied at its input terminal. LM741 is an op-amp IC having 8 different pins, which will be explained later in this tutorial. LM-741 has a very wide range of applications e.g. function generator, comparator, DC amplifiers, integrator, differentiator, active filters, summing amplifiers, multivibrators.

Introduction to LM741

• LM741 is an operational amplifier having eight (8) pins in total.
• It belongs to the series of general purpose operational amplifiers (op-amp).

• It is capable of providing high gain and can support higher voltages at its input.
• It has a lot of applications in real life i.e. integrator, function generators, multi-vibrators, active filters, amplifiers etc.

1. LM741 Pinout

• LM 741 has eight (8) pins in total.
• All of the pins are provided along with their name and functionalities in the table given below:

LM741 Pinout
Pin No.	Pin Name	Pin Type	Description
1	Offset null	Input	Balance Input Voltage & Eliminate Offset Voltage
2	Inverting Input	Input	Invert Input Voltage
3	Non Inverting Input	Input	Non-Inverting Input Voltage
4	-Vcc	Input	Negative Voltage Supply
5	Offset null	Input	Balance Input Voltage & Eliminate Offset Voltage
6	Output	Output	Amplified Signal Output
7	+Vcc	Input	Positive Voltage Supply
8	Not Connected (NC)	Neither	It's not connected.

• From the above table we can see that the pin 1 and pin 5 has similar function.
• Whereas the pin number 4 and 7 are Vcc pins and output can be obtained from the pin number 6.
• Let's have a detailed overview of its pins in below figure:

• I have labelled all the pins of LM741 in above figure.

2. LM741 Specifications

• The voltage and power ratings of LM 741 are given in table shown below.
• Operating temperature as well as storage temperature are also provided along with their values and SI units.

LM741 Specifications
No.	Parameter	Value	Unit
1	Voltage supply (V)	+- 20	V
2	Power Dissipation (Pd)	500	mW
3	Input Voltage (Iin)	+-15	V
4	Operating Temperature (To)	-50 to +150	C
5	Differential Input Voltage (Vd)	30	V
6	Storage Temperature (Tstg)	-65 to 150	C
7	Junction Temperature (Tj)	150	C

LM741 Symbolic Representation

• LM741 symbolic representation (operational amplifier) is shown in the figure below.
• You can see in below figure that the inverting terminal of op-amp is connected with Pin # 2 while the non-inverting terminal is connected with Pin # 3.
• Now we can take the output from Pin # 6 of LM741.

LM741 Applications

LM 741 has a very wide range of applications in real life, a few of which are given below.

• It can be used as different integrator.
• We can also use it as differential operational amplifiers.
• It can also be used as function generators.
• Sometimes we can use it as comparator to compare voltage levels.
• LM 741 can be used as active filters as well as summing amplifier.
• One of its major application is to use it as offset null circuit, as shown in the figure below.

LM741 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a Proteus ISIS simulation using LM 741.
• The screen shot of the Proteus simulation is shown in the figure below.

• Now let's run this LM 741 Proteus Simulation and if everything goes fine then you will get results as shown in below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure that LM 741 is amplifying the input signal.
• The input signal in above figure is of 50mV and as we change the variable resistance on inverting terminal of op-amp, the amplitude of input signal increases or decreases accordingly.
• You can download this simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So, that is all from the tutorial the Introduction to LM741. I hope you have enjoyed this tutorial. If have any sort of problems, you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues. Our team is also 24/7 here to entertain you. I will explore other IC's and equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to IRF540

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge with all of guys about Introduction to IRF540. It is basically an N-Channel power Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and operates in enhancement mode. MOSFET is a lot sensitive in comparison to an FET (Field Effect Transistor) due to its very high input impdence. IRF540 can perform very fast switching as compared to the normal transistor. It is based on HEXFET technology and operates on the temperature ranging from -55 degrees celsius  to 175  degree celsius. If we need some switching application between different signals or to perform any of amplification process, MOSFET IRF540 will be the best option in this case because it can perform very fast switching as compared to the similar general transistors. It has a very wide range of applications in real life e.g. high power switching drivers for high speed, switching regulators, relay drivers, switching converters, motor drivers. Note:

• Here's the link to download IRF540 Datasheet and I have also shared the link to buy this MOSFET IRF540:

Download IRF540 Datasheet

Introduction to IRF540

IRF540 is an N-Channel powered MOSFET used for very fast switching operations as well as for amplification processes. It operates in enhancement mode. Its input impedance is quite high as compared to the general transistor so, its a lot sensitive in comparison to them. It has a lot of applications in daily life for example, switching regulators, relay drivers, switching converters, motor drivers, high speed power switching drivers etc. You should also have a look at other MOSFETs and can compare their values with IRF540.

1. IRF540 Pinout

• IRF 540 has three pins in total named as:
  1. Drain
  2. Gate
  3. Source
• So, when we apply signal at the Gate of IRF540, then its Drain and Source got connected.
• All of the IRF540 pins along with their names and symbol are given in the table shown below.

 

IRF540 Pinout
Pin#	Name	Symbol	Type	Function
1	Gate	G	P-Type	Controls the current between Drain & Source
2	Drain	D	N-Type	Electrons Emitter
3	Source	S	N-Type	Electrons Collector

 

2. IRF540 Pin Diagram

• A properly labeled diagram helps in better standing of the user.
• So, I have provided the completely labeled diagram of IRF540 pins configuration.
• The diagram of this MOSFET is shown in the figure below.

3. IRF540 Dimension

• Three dimensions e.g. length width and height of IRF540 module is provided along with their units in the table shown below.

4. IRF540 General Specifications

• The general specifications e.g. configuration, channel type, channel mode, pin numbers, package and category are provided in the table shown below.

5. IRF540 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of IRF 540 are provided along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

6. IRF540 Working Principle

This section of the tutorial will elaborate about the basic working principle on which IRF540 works. IRF540 works on a pretty simple principle. Its has three kinds of terminals e.g. Drain, Gate and Source. When we apply any of the pulse at its Gate terminal, its Gate and Drain gets short i.e. they make a common connection with each other. When the Gate and the Drain gets short, only then we will be able to obtain the desired results otherwise it will produce unnecessary or unwanted results.

7. IRF540 Applications

• The applications associated with IRF540 are given below.
• It can be used as switching converters.
• We can use it as relay drivers.
• It can also be used as high speed switching drivers.
• We can use it as motor drivers.
• It can be used for fast switching and for amplification processes.

8. IRF540 Proteus ISIS Simulation

• I have made a Proteus simulation for DC motor control using IRF540.
• The screenshot of the simulation is provided in the figure shown below.

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below and you can see in the below figure that as we closed the switch, motor got running.

• When you run the simulation the motor will change its color i.e. blue, as shown in the figure above.
• After running the simulation as you press the button encircled in the above figure, the motor will start to rotate.
• I have another simulation in Proteus ISIS for DC motor control using IRF540 and Arduino UNO.
• The simulation is shown in the figure below.

• If you have a look at the above simulation then you can see, we are sending signal from Arduino to Optocoupler.
• IRF-540 is connected at the output of Opto-coupler.
• Moreover, we have used 1N4148 which is a diode and is used for security reasons and is not allowing the current to flow in opposite direction.
• The source code written in Arduino software is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• You need to just copy and paste the above code in your Arduino software and need to Get the Arduino hex file from it.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• You need to run the Proteus simulation after uploading .hex file in Arduino.
• Now if you change the state of the logic state from 0 to 1, the green LED will be turned ON which shows that the circuit is properly working.
• At the same time motor will start rotating in either direction.
• That was the brief discussion about IRF540 Proteus simulation.
• You can download the complete IRF540 Proteus simulation by clicking the below button:

Download IRF540 Datasheet

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to IRF540. I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any sort of hesitation. Our team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve all to solve all of your problem to best of our efforts. I will explore different IC's and transistors in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, take care :)