The Engineering Projects

Introduction to Web 2.0 and its Role in SEO

Hi Friends! I am back to help you with a daily dose of useful information so you can excel and grow in your field. Today, I am going to discuss the details on the Introduction to Web 2.0. This is the thirteenth article of complete SEO series. You can also have a look at my previous article on SMO and why it is important for SEO and overall blog growth. Web 2.0 is a term defined as how the content and data is shared, edited and collaborated among end users using online tools to enhance the user experience and provide them equal opportunity to take an active part in the discussions initiated by the business owners and bloggers. In this way, visitors remain updated with most relevant and useful information where they can share their experience in case the information they find is limited and their words can add more value to the written content. This gives most diverse and useful information to the end users, so they don't have to rely on information and data given by the small community of business owners where they can manipulate the information for their personal gains. I'll try to cover each and everything related to this topic, so you don't have to scroll across the web and find all information in one place. Let's dive in and explore what is this about and everything you need to know.

Introduction to Web 2.0

The Web 2.0 is a widely used term which includes how information is shared across the web where end users can take an active part and collaborate with each other, add their experience and edit the already given information.

• This idea was proposed by Darcy DiNucci with the intention of increasing user experience and enhance their personal interaction so they can collaborate and interact with each other.

In her article 'Fragmented Future' Darcy DiNucci wrote; "The Web we know now, which loads into a browser window in essentially static screenfuls, is only an embryo of the Web to come. The first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop. The Web will be understood not as screenfuls of text and graphics but as a transport mechanism, the ether through which interactivity happens." Information shared across the web is highly volatile in nature. With daily advancement and innovation in technology & education, you can't rely on a single source of information. You have to explore and get knowledge from multiple platforms that help you make a final decision.

• Web 2.0 is a concept that came to limelight and gain popularity in Media Web 2.0 Conference conducted in 2004 by Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty.
• Web 1.0 was mostly used term before the inception of Web 2.0
• The Web 1.0 involved no user interaction and highly dependent on the site and business owner who used to manage data according to their own will. This term had limited the source of user interaction where they couldn't share their experience for the services and products certain business was offering.

At that time, only static page was used to share the information across the web.

Main Difference Between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0

Web 1.0 only provides the 'read' feature to the end users where they can't share their information. This limits the circle of interaction between the business owner and end user. The limitation of Web 1.0 proved to be the stepping stone for the introduction to Web 2.0 which involved both features i.e 'read and write'.

• Web 2.0 gives end users the flexibility of not only reading the content but also share their words and personal experience to add value to already written content. Web 1.0 makes the information static while Web 2.0 makes information dynamic and volatile that enhance the user experience where they can get the information that truly aligns with their field of interest.
• Web 1.0 only involves one encyclopedia called Britannica while Web 2.0 comes with a wider version of encyclopedia called Wikipedia where information can be edited by both i.e. experts and non-experts.
• Online earning through Web 1.0 mainly depends on the pageviews while Web 2.0 provides a greater opportunity for online earning as it allows the blogs to make money through pay per click ( when someone clicks on the ad displayed on the web page, you will get paid).
• Web 1.0 provides a content delivery network which brings a load to the server as information is not equally shared among the servers involved in the flow of information. While Web 2.0 provides more flexible platforms like BitTorrent and eMule that not only provide information but also involves the servers of the end users.

How Web 2.0 Works

The main aim of Web 2.0 is to increase user experience and social interaction. You can't only read the blog or services provided by the owners but you can also share your word and experience through comments or feedback. We can't brush off the importance of websites truly made for revenue generation; Web 2.0 introduced a new term called blogging where everyone can share their knowledge in their own words.

• It is observed, information shared across education and technology websites, appears to be very technical that makes difficult for the end users to grab the main concept.
• Bloggers not only optimize that information but also add value by transforming the main concept into simple words.

Online technology always strives to keep visitors updated by providing advanced tools in order to increase user experience so they can take an active part and get benefit from the web sources.

• Gone are days, when people with a lot of technical skills were able to build websites and blogs for online earning. Web 2.0 introduced platforms like Blogger.com and Wordpress that make too easy for users to build the blog without any prior technical knowledge. No problem, if you are a student or housewife, you can build your blog and secure your seat for online earning.

Earlier, it was very easy to share information and gain traffic all the while ignoring actual visitors' problems and needs. This led to the addition of SEO (search engine optimization), where you need to produce the content based on the nature and requirements of end users. If you create content without proper SEO strategy, you would be left out with a minor or no chance of appearing on the top of search engines. You need to keep happy both i.e. search engines as well as visitors. Following are the main elements of the Web 2.0

• ONE. Mobile computing is a remarkable addition that falls under Web 2.0, that connects all people across the world with the comfort of being at home or wherever they go. People remain connected through multiple smart devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and Mac. WiFi or 3G technology is used to join all these devices on a single platform where you can scroll and browse through a bunch of information spread across the web. Using this trend, people can share their experience and build a relationship with the people of same interest.
• TWO. Social networking sites include Facebook, Twitter, Linkedin, Google+ that allow business owners to make a solid connection with online visitors. Feedback and recommendation given by visitors on these social sites help businesses grow so they develop the product keeping in the view of visitors' demands.
• THREE. Mashup is the process where two or more applications are joined together for better user experience i.e. when blog and social media sites work together they incorporate and deliver a better user experience. The web was actually created to be mashed up in order to engage visitors for better interaction.
• FOUR. Forums are created on the web where different people of same interest can start discussions and help each other out. These forums work in two ways i.e. either you can highlight the problem that is not already discussed on the forum or you can reply to the questions already created by visitors.
• FIVE. User participation involves the participation of the end users. They share information for other users to see. The main purpose of the web is to create information that flows two ways i.e. from the site owners to the visitors and from visitors to the site owners and other visitors.
• SIX. User Generated Content includes written stuff, videos, audio or images that are readily available on the web so an average person can get benefit from them.

Technologies used in Web 2.0

Web 2.0 framework involves Ajax and JavaScript that allows users to communicate with the page. The Ajax programming separates the information coming to the server from the information coming back to the page. This boosts the overall site performance where sending information is completely independent of the receiving information.

• Most of the Web 2.0 applications use decentralized platform where information is equally shared between the servers as compared to the centralized platform that brings too much load on the individual servers.

Rich Internet Application is another concept given by the Web 2.0 where information is brought from the desktop to the browser. This technique allows web designers to develop the pages that behave like desktop applications.

Web 2.0 for SEO

Web 2.0 can work wonder for SEO if done a right way. The main aim of SEO is bringing a potential audience to your web page that helps to appear your blog on the top of search engines.

• There are a lot of techniques and strategies available to boost your ranking, however, when SEO is overdone or overwhelmed by keyword stuffing, can severely affect the overall health of your blog.
• Making your presence on Web 2.0 sites involves social media sites, social bookmarking sites, self-publisher sites like WordPress or blogger.com, wikis, video and audio content sharing sites.

If you have newly stepped in online world, you have to be very careful while using social platforms that fall under Web 2.0, because if you create a lot of profiles and link back to your main web page without giving relevant information to end users, it will result in spamming and Google will take no time to penalize your blog. The golden rule of thumb to be successful in an online world is start creating social media profiles slowly and gradually as your blog grows. Following are the social sites that fall under the Web 2.0 platform

• Facebook
• Twitter
• Google+
• Linkedin

When you start a new blog or intend to build a new business from the scratch, it is advised to build fan pages and profiles on these platforms and write a relevant 200-word bio that truly describes what your company does and what are the skills, services, and content you can provide to the relevant audience. Similarly, following are the self-publishing sites that include Web 2.0

• Blogger
• Wordpress
• Tumblr
• Stumbleupon
• Livejournal
• Squidoo

After creating the main blog for online earning, you can also create multiple blogs on different sites that link back to your main blog. It will help you rank higher on search engines.

• Again, creating a lot of blogs for backlinking is not preferred unless all the blogs created for backlinking come with some value and bring relevant information to the end users. Getting backlink from a blog with high domain authority and page rank brings more value to your main blog than getting backlinks from multiple low-quality sites.

You can voice your brand and uncover your main skills through video, audio or images. Following are sites that can help you highlight your brand value:

• YouTube
• Instagram
• Podcast

Web 2.0 plays a vital role in the development and improvement of any business. If a certain business is using Web 2.0 that involves the active participation of the end user where they can give their personal review about a certain product, this helps the business to improve their product and work on the areas where they are lacking. You can check the complete guide of SEO Tutorials that houses each and everything relating to On Page and Off Page SEO on a single page. Following are the main benefits for the business using Web 2.0 platform.

Online Exposure

When your content or services are shared across the web on many social media platforms, you'll get an instant online exposure to the wider audience. It also gives many businesses an opportunity to curate and optimize their content keeping in view of the demands and requirements of the visitors.

• There is no need of providing content and services that don't resonate with the field of users' interest. This is how you can build rapport and relationship with the customers.

Brand Awareness

Technology has been evolved and took a step ahead to meet with the nature of visitors. The Web 2.0 involves online social sharing websites like Facebook, Twitter, Linkedin, Instagram.

• When business or blog owners share the information related to the problems their audience is facing, they come with a higher chance of broadcasting themselves and share their service with a relevant audience. This gives the business an online advantage and helps it turning out as a brand.

More Traffic

When you create a profile on multiple sites under Web 2.0, it helps bring more traffic to your site.

• The more visitors come to your site, the more is the chance of conversion. Again, no need to create a number of fake profiles on a single platform with the empty page that brings no value to the end users.

Participate actively, update your fan page regularly and interact with the visitors on daily basis in order to keep your page running on all platforms.

Social Interaction

Social interactions and collaboration with the end users is another benefit of using Web 2.0 features. If you are taking an active part in the discussions initiated by the customers, you will come up with a higher chance of accelerating and growing in your field.

• If your blog or business comes with more positive feedbacks and solid recommendation from the potential audience, you will flourish in no time.

Compete with Competitors

When you are active online, you can anticipate and get an idea of how your competitors are doing in the market. What are the strategies that work for them and what are the innovations and development you must add to your product to get maximum revenue. Earlier, you would need to establish business first, then you reached every other customer physically to guide them about the product you were selling.

• Marketing strategies have been evolved and governed over last decade, now what matters is how you interact with the customers and spread your data across the web so visitors face no difficulty in finding the right product that helps them solve their problems.

Conclusion

Web 2.0 is a one-step ahead from Web 1.0, where the main aim is to target end users and provoke them to actively participate with the web pages and provide valuable information. Web 2.0 introduced self-publishing platforms like Wordpress and Blogger.com that makes very easy for visitors to make a blog in any niche without any prior knowledge. All platforms fall under Web 2.0, when used in a right way, can help boost both i.e. SEO and Business. That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. In the next post, we will discuss PBN and how it works for getting backlinks and growing your blog authority. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Feel free to keep us updated with your feedback and suggestions, they help us provide you most relevant and quality content. Thanks for reading the article.

PCB Prototype Service by PCBWay

Hello Guys! Hope you are doing great. We always keep your needs and demands on the top and strive to provide you content that truly resonates with your field of interest so you keep coming back every now and then. Today, I am going to give a quick review about Online PCB Prototype Service Called PCBWay. If you are student or technology geek, you are pretty much interested in embedded system projects that require lots of components to be placed together. A breadboard is useful and meets the requirement of the project when a temporary solution is required, however, when you need a permanent solution you require PCB where you can put and connect all of your components together. Also, an end to end wiring is becoming obsolete due to the complexity and nature of the projects being developed in recent times. This is where PCB comes in handy that is not only cheap but covers less space as compared to end to end wiring.

PCB Prototype Service

Picking online PCB service provider is kind of tricky because your whole project relies on the quality and characteristics of the board you choose. A low-quality product can put your project at risk. You can not choose any PCB service provider and get away with it. Today, I'll give you an unbiased review on one of the best online PCB prototype service that not only fulfills your requirement but also helps you solve your problems related to the execution and development of your project. I know when it comes to providing top quality service there are only a few companies that align with your demands especially when you are quite overwhelmed by a lot of information spread across the web. Don't you worry we have got you covered.   Following are some reasons why this prototype service must be your first choice.

PCB and PCBA Together

Thanks to technology. Ordering PCB online is now just one click away where you have the privilege of picking prototype service of your own choice that sets you free from the doubt of getting a low-quality product. When you order PCB online, next step is to place components on the board. Not everyone is skilled or professional when it comes to placing components together. If you are a student and get your hands on very first on the PCB board, you feel quite intimidated and confused how to place all components on the board correctly. If you order PCB from this component they not only provide you quality product but also help you with PCBA (printed circuit board assembly) service. All PCB boards come with an option of covering with both technologies i.e. SMT or Thru-Hole. You can choose any of them based on your requirements. Note. You need to pay little extra if you want to get both services i.e. PCB and PCBA.

Quality Assurance

Quality is the first thing comes to your mind when you intend to secure your order. The boards you get will be of top quality where all copper traces are properly aligned and laid out on the board perfectly. All the boards undergo strict measurements and proper testing before they are delivered to you. This company comes with top-notch and precise inspecting equipment including X-ray Inspection Machine, Flying Probe Tester, and Automated Inspection Machine, making sure finished product leaves no loopholes that can severely affect your project.

Sponsorship

You cannot think out of the box when you constantly worry about the budget of your project. When you are a student, it is very difficult for you to keep your project within a certain price range. It is very likely that you start your project keeping in the view of your budget, but as the project proceeds, it develops another shape that makes it very difficult for you to keep the project within your budget. If you think the project you are working on, needs amendment and optimization that requires a lot of money, you can get benefit from their sponsorship program where they will help you sponsor your project right from the start to the completion of project. There are only a few services and programs available on the web that not only provide technical support but also sponsor your project, making it very easy for you to introduce innovation to your project without thinking too much about the cost.

Quotation Calculator

Quotation calculator is a remarkable addition to their site where you can place the requirements for your product and get an instant quote. In this way, you can get a quick idea about the overall cost of the product before it gets delivered to you at first place. This leaves you with peace of mind where you are sure you will get the product in actual price available on the quotation calculator without any hidden charges. When you are sure about the price, you can pay attention to the other parts of the project like troubleshooting and execution process. You can get an instant quote from here. Note. Lead time normally ranges from 1 to 3 days, however, it also depends on the complexity of the product and the time zone you are in.

Quality Customer Service

They come with quality service where you can discuss your project with professionals through their customer service team. Providing quality service is their duty and making their customer satisfied is their priority. They have introduced proper feedback system on their site, where you can put your review and feedback with full confidence, making sure your needs and demands will be addressed without any delay, so you keep coming back for what they have to offer.

SMD- Stencil Availability

Stencil printing and placement of solder mask and silkscreen on the finished product is another feature that puts this online service ahead of their competitors. What is stencil? It is a process that requires depositing of solder paste on the board. SMD-Stencil requires the placement of surface mount device on the stencil. You can choose stencil type between framework type and non-framework type based on your requirements.

Competitive Price

Every project comes with a certain budget. Of course, you don't want to spend too much on the project that makes it economically unstable. You can't ignore the importance of this prototype service where you get all boards at an economical price. A number of boards available ranging from a single layer, double layer, flex board, rigid-flex to multilayer boards, all available in most competitive price, less than from their competitors. Note. Don't forget to claim 5$ bonus if you are a new customer.   That's all for today. I hope you have got enough information before making a final decision and securing your order. However, if you are unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below, I'd love to help you based on my knowledge and expertise. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to Transistor

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing fine. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to Transistor. A transistor is a semiconductor device that comes with three terminals, where a small current at one terminal is used to control current at the other terminals. Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of electronic signals. Transistors were first invented by American Physicists John Bardeen in 1947. Before the inception of transistors, vacuum tubes were used to control the electronic signals. These vacuum tubes come with anode & cathode arrangement and the potential difference across these ends produces the electric current. In the later versions, a filament is added which is used to provide heat to the cathode that directs the electrons towards the anode side. Their complex design, more power consumption set a pathway for the development of the transistors that play an important role in the creation of modern electronic devices. Before you get ahold of the transistor, I'd highly suggest you read the article on which is the building block of the transistor.

What is Diode?

Before going into the details of the transistor, let's first recall some points from the previous lecture Introduction to Diode:

• A diode is a semiconductor device, that is developed when two types of semiconductor materials(i.e. N-Type and P-Type) are joined together.
• In the construction of the diode, the PN junction is formed by the combination of P-type & N-type material.
• Electrons(-ve charge) are major charge carriers in the N-Type material and Holes(+ve charge) are major charge carriers in the P-Type material.

Transistors are formed when an extra layer is added to this PN junction. Transistors come in various types including BJTs, JFETs, MOSFET. BJTs are the bipolar junction transistors which use two charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes for electrical conduction. And BJTs are the current controlled devices where small current at one terminal is used to control large current at other terminals. While JFETs are the unipolar devices where conduction is carried out by the movement of only one charge carrier. Let's dive in and explore what is the main function of a transistor and how it is used for the development of many electronic circuits.

Introduction to Transistor

• A transistor is a three-terminal electronic device where small current at one terminal is used to control large current at other terminals. Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of the electronic signals.
• Transistor comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and collector which are used for the external connection with electronic circuits.
• Transistors were created with the intention of providing cheap electronics. They are available individually, however, most of the time they are packed together in integrated circuits which are then used for the developments of processors, computer memory chips, and complex ICs.
• A transistor is a combination of two words i.e. transfer and varistor where each layer comes with an ability to transfer current to other layers when a proper biasing voltage is applied across one of the layers.
• Transistor comes with three layers and two PN junctions where an emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
• Most of the transistors are created using silicon and germanium that are less expensive to vacuum tube and require less power to operate.
• Based on the mobility of major charge carriers, transistors are divided into two types NPN and PNP transistors. Both are different in terms of electrical behaviors and physical construction.
• The NPN transistors comes with three layers i.e. two N-doped layers and one P-doped layer. The P-doped layer is sandwiched between two N-doped layers. In NPN transistors, conduction is carried out by both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes, however, electrons are major charge carriers in NPN transistors.

• Similarly, PNP transistors comes with three layers i.e. two P-doped layers and one N-doped layer. The N-doped layer exists between two P-doped layers. Actually, N-doped layer is responsible for triggering transistor action. When a proper bias voltage is applied at the P-doped layer, it draws current which is then used to control large current at other terminals.

• Transistors that come in NPN and PNP configurations are nothing but the combinations of two diodes joined back to back.
• In NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter, while in PNP transistor current flows from emitter to collector.
• The current directions and voltage polarities are always opposite in both transistors. Suppose, if a current is flowing in a clockwise direction in NPN transistor and comes with positive polarity at the base terminal, it will flow in an anticlockwise direction in PNP transistor where voltage polarity becomes negative.
• PN junction formed between two semiconductor material is a building block of the transistor. When PN junction is formed, major charge carriers in N-region (electrons) cross the junction and reach the P-region where they recombine with holes. Similarly, major charge carriers in P-region (holes) cross the junction and reach the N-region where they recombine with electrons.
• The diffusion of electrons and holes depends on the biasing voltage applied across the junction.
• The voltage is said to have forward biased when P-region is connected with positive terminal of the battery and N-region is connected with the negative terminal of the battery.

• Under the forward biased condition, holes and electrons can easily cross the junction and maintain a current across the junction. When this diffusion occurs, it will generate the region across the junction which is depleted with major charge carriers. This region is known as depletion region.
• As long as the forward biased voltage is applied, current flows across the junction. Diffusion of holes and electrons create an electric field within the junction. This electric field resists the further diffusion of charge carriers.
• As said earlier, transistor comes with two PN junctions where one junction is forward biased and other junction is reverse biased.

Modes of Transistor

Transistor comes with different modes of operation. Let's discuss them one by one.

Active Mode

• Active mode is used for amplification of the electronic signal where small current at the base terminal is being amplified at the collector terminal.
• The base terminal is responsible for the transistor action which controls the number of main charge carriers (electrons in case of NPN transistor and holes in case of PNP transistor) flowing through it and draws a small current when a proper bias voltage is applied.

Cut-Off Mode

• In this mode, transistor works as an open switch and no current flows across the terminals where a base voltage is less than a voltage at other terminals.

Saturation Mode

• This mode is considered as an ON switch where current flows freely from collector to emitter.
• In this condition, the voltage difference between collector and emitter is zero, and the collector current is restricted by a supply voltage and load resistance.
• In saturation mode, both junctions are forward biased and base voltage is greater than the voltage at other terminals.

Reverse Active Mode

• This mode acts as an active mode with one exception i.e. current direction is reversed.
• Current flows from emitter to collector which is proportional to the base current.
• The base current is highly influenced by the bias voltage applied at the terminal which then controls large current at other terminals.
• The voltage at the terminals is related in the following way.

Current Gain

Current gain plays an important role in the function of the transistor. Following are two common current gains in a transistor.

Common-Emitter Current Gain

• Common-Emitter current gain is a ratio between collector current and base current.
• This is also known as an amplification factor which defines the amount of current being amplified.
• It is called beta and denoted by ß. The beta value ranges from 20 to 1000, however, most of the time its value is taken as 50.

Common-Base Current Gain

• Another current gain is common-base current gain which is a ratio between collector current and emitter current.
• It is called alpha and denoted by a. The alpha value is taken as unity.

Applications of Transistor

• Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of low and high-frequency AC signals.
• No current is produced at the collector terminal unless there is a current at the base terminal. This process allows the transistor to work as a switch. The transistor can be turned ON and OFF by controlling the bias voltage at the base terminal.
• Based on requirements, a transistor can be made to operate in cut-off or saturation region for switching applications.
• Integrated circuits added in the development of the processors are made from transistors.
• Used in the development of logarithmic converters and logic gates.
• Transistors are widely used in modern electronics especially where signal processing and radio transmission is required.

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. We always keep your demands on the top and develop a content that truly resonates with your field of interest. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Thanks for reading the article.

How to Control DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, I am going to show you How to Control DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3. We will control both the speed and direction of DC Motor. I hope you have read the previous tutorial on How to Create a GUI in Raspberry Pi 3 as we are gonna create a small GUI in this tutorial as well and then we are gonna control our DC Motor with Buttons on GUI.

In order to control the DC Motor, we have to use some drivers in between our Microcontroller and DC Motor. This driver's functionality is to control a 12V DC Motor with a 5V signal from a microcontroller. In today's tutorial, we are gonna use L298 Motor Driver. So, let's get started with How to Control DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3:

How to Control DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3

• I have divided this tutorial into four parts, which are:
  • Designing of 5V Power Supply.
  • L298 Motor Driver Circuit Designing.
  • Direction Control of Dc Motor with Raspberry Pi 3.
  • Speed Control of DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3.
• You can download this python File for Controlling of DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3, by clicking the below button:

Download Python File

• So, let's first design our 5V Power Supply:

1. Designing of 5V Power Supply

• First of all, we need to design a power supply using Voltage Regulator 7805, which will step down our voltage from 12V to 5V.
• We need 12V for our DC Motor and 5V is also required for L298 Motor Driver.
• I am using a 12V adapter so I need to step down this voltage to 5V.
• You can use 5V from Raspberry Pi as well if you don't wanna design this power supply, although it's quite simple.
• For example, if you are designing some robot then you can't place your Laptop on it. In such cases we need to design 5V power supply for our Pi.
• Here's the list of components that are going to be used for this power supply:
  • 7805.
  • 100uF Capacitor.
  • 1000uF Capacitor.
  • 1k ohm Resistance.
  • 2 Pin Socket.
  • Male Header Pins.

• Here's the circuit diagram of our power supply in Proteus, if you wanna read more details about it then you should have a look at How to Design a 5V Power Supply in Proteus.

• You can see in above figure that we have used 12V Battery and then used 7805 to get 5V at the output.
• Here's the real circuit which I have designed on wero board:

• So, now we have all three voltage levels, which are:
  • 12V: White wire.
  • 5V: Gray Wire.
  • GND ( 0V ): Red Wire.
• The next thing we need to do is, we need to design the Motor driver circuit using L298 Motor Driver:

L298 Motor Driver Circuit

• L298 is an excellent motor driver, you can control two DC Motors with one L298 driver.
• I have used L298 Motor Driver Shield, you can read more about this shield on L298 Motor Driver Library for Proteus.
• Here's the circuit, which I have designed for controlling my DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3:

• You can quite easily design this circuit as you just need to connect simple jumper wires.
• Here's my real setup with L298 Motor Driver & Raspberry Pi 3:

• So, now we are done with our connections and you can see in above figures that we are using these three pins of Raspberry Pi 3:
  • Pin # 12: Connected to Enable A.
  • Pin # 16: Connected to Input 1.
  • Pin # 18: Connected to Input 2.
  • The fourth wire is GND, you have to connect the GND of Raspberry Pi 3 with your power supply GND.
  • +12V & 5V are provided to the L298 motor driver from our power supply.
• Now let's design our code in python, first, we will control the direction of DC Motor and after that, we will control its speed.

Direction Control of DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3

• First of all, I am gonna place three Buttons on my GUI and then I will control the direction of my DC Motor with these buttons.
• I have already explained the code in bits in my previous tutorial LEd Blinking with Raspberry Pi 3, so I will not explain it all again but will only cover the new code.
• So, here's our first part of code, where I have done the basic configuration of our pins and GUI:

# ************************************************************************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# *********** Code Designed by www.TheEngineeringProjects.com ************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# ************** How to Control DC Motor in Raspberry Pi 3 ***************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# ************************************************************************** #

# Importing Libraries

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
import time
from tkinter import *
import tkinter.font

# Libraries Imported successfully

# Raspberry Pi 3 Pin Settings

PWMPin = 12 # PWM Pin connected to ENA.
Motor1 = 16 # Connected to Input 1.
Motor2 = 18 # Connected to Input 2.
GPIO.setwarnings(False)
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) # We are accessing GPIOs according to their physical location
GPIO.setup(PWMPin, GPIO.OUT) # We have set our pin mode to output
GPIO.setup(Motor1, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.setup(Motor2, GPIO.OUT)

GPIO.output(PWMPin, GPIO.LOW) # When it will start then all Pins will be LOW.
GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW)
GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

PwmValue = GPIO.PWM(PWMPin, 2000) # We have set our PWM frequency to 2000.
PwmValue.start(100) # That's the maximum value 100 %.

# Raspberry Pi 3 Pin Settings Completed

# tkinter GUI basic settings

Gui = Tk()
Gui.title("DC Motor Control with Pi 3")
Gui.config(background= "#0080FF")
Gui.minsize(800,300)
Font1 = tkinter.font.Font(family = 'Helvetica', size = 18, weight = 'bold')

# tkinter simple GUI created

• The above code is quite easy to understand, you have seen that I have made the PWM value to maximum as I don't want to change the speed, I just want to control its directions.
• So, now let's add the buttons and Labels on our GUI, here's the code:

Text1 = Label(Gui,text='Motor Status:', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 50, pady = 50)
Text1.grid(row=0,column=0)

Text2 = Label(Gui,text='Stop', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 0)
Text2.grid(row=0,column=1)

Text1 = Label(Gui,text=' ', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 150, pady = 50)
Text1.grid(row=0,column=2)

Button1 = Button(Gui, text='Clockwise', font = Font1, command = MotorClockwise, bg='bisque2', height = 1, width = 10)
Button1.grid(row=1,column=0)

Button2 = Button(Gui, text=' Motor Stop', font = Font1, command = MotorStop, bg='bisque2', height = 1, width = 10)
Button2.grid(row=1,column=1)

Button2 = Button(Gui, text='AntiClockwise', font = Font1, command = MotorAntiClockwise, bg='bisque2', padx = 50, height = 1, width = 10)
Button2.grid(row=1,column=2)

Text3 = Label(Gui,text='www.TheEngineeringProjects.com', font = Font1, bg = '#0080FF', fg='#FFFFFF', padx = 50, pady = 50)
Text3.grid(row=2,columnspan=2)

Gui.mainloop()

• I have used three Texts in first row, the third text is just used for padding. It's easy that way. :P
• I have placed three buttons in the second row and in the last row we have our site's link.
• Here's the screenshot of this GUI:

• Now, finally, we need to add the functions for these buttons.
• Here's the code for these functions and we need to place that code above our GUI code.

def MotorClockwise():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW) # Motor will move in clockwise direction.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.HIGH)
    
def MotorAntiClockwise():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.HIGH) # Motor will move in anti-clockwise direction.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

def MotorStop():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW) # Motor will stop.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

• We have three functions here and simply by toggling the pins of our DC Motor, I have changed it direction.
• In order to stop the DC Motor, I have simply made both the pins LOW.
• Now run your code and if everything goes fine then you will motor will follow your command.
• Here's the screenshot of my system in running form:

• Here's our complete code for DC Motor Direction Control with Raspberry Pi 3, in one piece. :P

# ************************************************************************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# *********** Code Designed by www.TheEngineeringProjects.com ************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# ************** How to Control DC Motor in Raspberry Pi 3 ***************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# ************************************************************************** #

# Importing Libraries

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
import time
from tkinter import *
import tkinter.font

# Libraries Imported successfully

# Raspberry Pi 3 Pin Settings

PWMPin = 12 # PWM Pin connected to ENA.
Motor1 = 16 # Connected to Input 1.
Motor2 = 18 # Connected to Input 2.
GPIO.setwarnings(False)
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) # We are accessing GPIOs according to their physical location
GPIO.setup(PWMPin, GPIO.OUT) # We have set our pin mode to output
GPIO.setup(Motor1, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.setup(Motor2, GPIO.OUT)

GPIO.output(PWMPin, GPIO.LOW) # When it will start then all Pins will be LOW.
GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW)
GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

PwmValue = GPIO.PWM(PWMPin, 2000) # We have set our PWM frequency to 2000.
PwmValue.start(100) # That's the maximum value 100 %.

# Raspberry Pi 3 Pin Settings Completed

# tkinter GUI basic settings

Gui = Tk()
Gui.title("DC Motor Control with Pi 3")
Gui.config(background= "#0080FF")
Gui.minsize(800,300)
Font1 = tkinter.font.Font(family = 'Helvetica', size = 18, weight = 'bold')

# tkinter simple GUI created

def MotorClockwise():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW) # Motor will move in clockwise direction.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.HIGH)
    
def MotorAntiClockwise():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.HIGH) # Motor will move in anti-clockwise direction.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

def MotorStop():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW) # Motor will stop.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

Text1 = Label(Gui,text='Motor Status:', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 50, pady = 50)
Text1.grid(row=0,column=0)

Text2 = Label(Gui,text='Stop', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 0)
Text2.grid(row=0,column=1)

Text1 = Label(Gui,text=' ', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 150, pady = 50)
Text1.grid(row=0,column=2)

Button1 = Button(Gui, text='Clockwise', font = Font1, command = MotorClockwise, bg='bisque2', height = 1, width = 10)
Button1.grid(row=1,column=0)

Button2 = Button(Gui, text=' Motor Stop', font = Font1, command = MotorStop, bg='bisque2', height = 1, width = 10)
Button2.grid(row=1,column=1)

Button2 = Button(Gui, text='AntiClockwise', font = Font1, command = MotorAntiClockwise, bg='bisque2', padx = 50, height = 1, width = 10)
Button2.grid(row=1,column=2)

Text3 = Label(Gui,text='www.TheEngineeringProjects.com', font = Font1, bg = '#0080FF', fg='#FFFFFF', padx = 50, pady = 50)
Text3.grid(row=2,columnspan=3)

Gui.mainloop()

 

• Now let's have a look at How to Control the Speed of our DC Motor with Raspberry Pi 3.

DC Motor Speed Control with Raspberry Pi 3

• I'm gonna add a slider in our GUI and with the help of this slider we are gonna change the value of PWM which in turn will change the speed our DC Motor.
• Here's the code for the slider which you need to place below our last Text.

Scale1 = Scale(Gui, from_=0, to=100, orient = HORIZONTAL, resolution = 1, command = ChangePWM)
Scale1.grid(row=2,column=2)

• Now run your GUI and you will get something as shown in below figure:

• Here's the code for the function which will execute when we change the slider value.

def ChangePWM(self):
    PwmValue.ChangeDutyCycle(Scale1.get())

• Now when you will run your simulation and change the value of this slider you will feel a clear change in your DC Motor speed.
• I will also create a video which will give you better understanding of this project.
• Here's our final combined code which will control both speed & direction of our DC Motor.

# ************************************************************************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# *********** Code Designed by www.TheEngineeringProjects.com ************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# ************** How to Control DC Motor in Raspberry Pi 3 ***************** #
# ****                                                                  **** #
# ************************************************************************** #

# Importing Libraries

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
import time
from tkinter import *
import tkinter.font

# Libraries Imported successfully

# Raspberry Pi 3 Pin Settings

PWMPin = 12 # PWM Pin connected to ENA.
Motor1 = 16 # Connected to Input 1.
Motor2 = 18 # Connected to Input 2.
GPIO.setwarnings(False)
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) # We are accessing GPIOs according to their physical location
GPIO.setup(PWMPin, GPIO.OUT) # We have set our pin mode to output
GPIO.setup(Motor1, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.setup(Motor2, GPIO.OUT)

GPIO.output(PWMPin, GPIO.LOW) # When it will start then all Pins will be LOW.
GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW)
GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

PwmValue = GPIO.PWM(PWMPin, 2000) # We have set our PWM frequency to 2000.
PwmValue.start(100) # That's the maximum value 100 %.

# Raspberry Pi 3 Pin Settings Completed

# tkinter GUI basic settings

Gui = Tk()
Gui.title("DC Motor Control with Pi 3")
Gui.config(background= "#0080FF")
Gui.minsize(800,300)
Font1 = tkinter.font.Font(family = 'Helvetica', size = 18, weight = 'bold')

# tkinter simple GUI created

def MotorClockwise():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW) # Motor will move in clockwise direction.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.HIGH)
    
def MotorAntiClockwise():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.HIGH) # Motor will move in anti-clockwise direction.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)

def MotorStop():
    GPIO.output(Motor1, GPIO.LOW) # Motor will stop.
    GPIO.output(Motor2, GPIO.LOW)
    
def ChangePWM(self):
    PwmValue.ChangeDutyCycle(Scale1.get())

Text1 = Label(Gui,text='Motor Status:', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 50, pady = 50)
Text1.grid(row=0,column=0)

Text2 = Label(Gui,text='Stop', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 0)
Text2.grid(row=0,column=1)

Text1 = Label(Gui,text=' ', font = Font1, fg='#FFFFFF', bg = '#0080FF', padx = 150, pady = 50)
Text1.grid(row=0,column=2)

Button1 = Button(Gui, text='Clockwise', font = Font1, command = MotorClockwise, bg='bisque2', height = 1, width = 10)
Button1.grid(row=1,column=0)

Button2 = Button(Gui, text=' Motor Stop', font = Font1, command = MotorStop, bg='bisque2', height = 1, width = 10)
Button2.grid(row=1,column=1)

Button2 = Button(Gui, text='AntiClockwise', font = Font1, command = MotorAntiClockwise, bg='bisque2', padx = 50, height = 1, width = 10)
Button2.grid(row=1,column=2)

Text3 = Label(Gui,text='www.TheEngineeringProjects.com', font = Font1, bg = '#0080FF', fg='#FFFFFF', padx = 50, pady = 50)
Text3.grid(row=2,columnspan=2)

Scale1 = Scale(Gui, from_=0, to=100, orient = HORIZONTAL, resolution = 1, command = ChangePWM)
Scale1.grid(row=2,column=2)

Gui.mainloop()

So, that was all for today. I hope you have enjoyed today's tutorial. Let me know if you have any questions. Have a good day. :)

What is PN Junction? Forward-Biased | Reverse-Biased

Hey Guys! I hope you all are doing great. In the previous tutorial, we studied the basics of Semiconductors, where we briefly discussed the PN Junction. Today, we are going to have a detailed overview of PN Junction.

But before getting into the details of PN Junction, we need to first recall a few concepts from the previous lecture:

Semiconductor Basics

As we know, the conductive power of a semiconductor material lies between a conductor and an insulator. So, it can act as a pure conductor as well as a pure insulator, depending on the applied conditions.

Semiconductors are divided into two types:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor.
• Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Intrinsic Semiconductor

• A semiconductor in its pure form is called an Intrinsic semiconductor.
• In this state, the outermost valance shell of the semiconductor has an equal number of electrons and holes(which is 4).
• These four valance electrons in the outermost shell of an Intrinsic semiconductor remain bound to their positions and thus no conduction is allowed.
• So, an Intrinsic Semiconductor acts as a pure insulator.
• The elemental Silicon(Si) or Germanium(Ge) in its pure form is an intrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

• In order to increase the conductive power of semiconductors, small amounts of impurities(in the ratio of 1 to 10⁶) are added to them, by a method called Doping.
• Such doped/impure semiconductors are called Extrinsic Semiconductors.
• Impurities added in the semiconductors are of two types i.e.
• Pentavalent (Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorous etc.).
• Trivalent (Aluminium, Boron, Indium, Gallium etc.)
• If the semiconductor is doped with a Pentavalent impurity, it's called N-Type Semiconductor.
• If the doping element used is trivalent, the extrinsic semiconductor produced will be called P-Type Semiconductor.
  

So, now we need to understand the formation of N-Type and P-type semiconductors, because PN Junction is formed by joining these two types.

N-Type Semiconductors

• Pure semiconductors normally belong to the 4th column of the periodic table and thus have an equal number of electrons & holes in their valance shell(which is 4).
• So, in pure form, there's no free electron or hole available for the conduction of electricity and thus it acts as an insulator. (We discussed conduction energy levels in detail in our last lecture)
• The pentavalent elements belong to the 5th column of the periodic table and have 5 electrons in their outermost shell.
• So, when a pure semiconductor i.e. Silicon(Si) is doped with a pentavalent impurity i.e. Boron(B), the four valance electrons of the Boron(B) will create a covalent bond with the closest Silicon(Si) atoms, but the 5th electron won't find a pair and will become a free electron.
• This free electron increases the conductive ability of the semiconductor.
• As an electron carries a negative charge, such extrinsic semiconductors are called Negative-Type Semiconductors or N-Type Semiconductors.
• In N-Type Semiconductors, the majority charge carriers are free electrons(negative), while the holes(positive) are present in very small numbers(called minority charge carriers).

Now let's have a look at the formation of P-Type Semiconductors:

P-Type Semiconductors

• When a semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity i.e. Aluminium(Al), the extrinsic semiconductor produced is called P-Type Semiconductor and has positively charged holes as majority charge carriers.
• Trivalent elements belong to the 3rd column of the periodic table and have 3 electrons in their outermost shell(valence shell).
• So, if we dope Silicon(Si) with Aluminium(Al), the 3 valence electrons of the impurity element(Al) will create a covalent bond with the neighboring Silicon(Si) atoms.
• The 4th valence electron of Si won't find a pair and thus a positively charged Hole will be originated. A Hole is a vacant space, has a positive charge and is ready to accommodate an electron(if available).
• This Hole generated in the Si crystal will increase its conductivity and such doped semiconductor will be called Postive-Type Semiconductor or P-Type Semiconductor.

So far, we have created N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors by adding pentavalent and trivalent impurities respectively in separate semiconductor crystals. Now, we are going to add both impurities in a single semiconductor crystal to create a PN Junction. So let's get started:

What is PN Junction?

• When a single crystal of semiconductor is doped with both pentavalent(i.e. Boron) and trivalent(i.e. Aluminium) impurities, a special barrier is created at the boundary of the two regions(N-Type & P-Type) which stops the flow of charge carriers. This barrier is called PN Junction.
• The most basic semiconductor component called Diode is a real-life application of the PN Junction.

Now let's have a look at the formation of this PN Junction:

PN Junction Formation

• As we know, electrons are the majority charge carriers in N-Type Semiconductors and Holes are the majority charge carriers in P-Type Semiconductors.
• Now, when we dope a single Si crystal with both impurities, an N-Typer region is created on one side and a P-Type region is created on the other side of the crystal.
• Electrons(in the N-Type region) present near the boundary get excited and diffuse into the P-Type region. Similarly, the Holes(in the P-Type region) close to the boundary move towards the N-Type region.
• This generates a potential difference at the boundary of the two regions, which gradually increases and at one point, restricts the further flow of electrons or holes in the neighboring region. (electron-hole diffusion stops)
  
• This region at the boundary with electrons in the P-Type region and Holes in the N-Type region is called the depletion region.
• The width of this depletion region depends on the amount of impurity added to the semiconductor.
• This Junction/boundary of the P-Type and N-Type regions is called the PN Junction.

• Under normal conduction, when there is no voltage applied across the PN junction, the junction is said to be in an equilibrium state. The potential difference at the junction in that state is called built-in potential which is 0.7 V for Silicon(Si) and 0.3 V for Germanium(Ge).
• When an external voltage is applied at the PN Junction, we get two behaviors of PN Junction depending on the external voltage polarity, named:
1. Forward-Biased.
   
2. Reverse-Biased.
   

Let's discuss these diode states, one by one:

Forward-Biased PN Junction

• If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-region and the negative terminal to the N-region, the PN Junction will be said to be operating in a Forward-Biased State.
• The external voltage should be greater than the built-in potential i.e. 0.7V for Si and 0.3V, so that it could melt the depletion region.
• In the Forward-Biased State, the Holes start to move towards the N-region and the electrons start flowing towards the P-region.
• As a result, the width of the depletion region starts reducing and finally depletes out.
• The current starts flowing through the semiconductor, as soon as the depletion region gets removed. We can say the semiconductor is acting as a conductor.
• In this state, the semiconductor has maximum conductivity and quite low resistance.

Reverse-Biased PN Junction

• If the P-region is connected with the negative terminal of the external source and the N-region with the positive terminal, the PN-Junction will operate in the reverse-biased state.
• As the P-region is connected to the negative voltage, the holes in the P-region will get attracted towards the external voltage, so start flowing away from the depletion region. The same will be the case with the electrons.
• So, no current will flow through the PN Junction in a reverse-biased state.

PN Junction as a One-Way Switch

In a normal conductive wire, current can flow in both directions but in a PN Junction, the current will flow only in one direction and will get blocked in the opposite direction. So, we can say that a PN-Junction is a One-Way Switch, allowing the current to flow in one direction only. On the top of my head, it could be used to avoid the back emf generated by the motors. This One-way switch literally bought a revolution in electronics.

Breakdown Region

• While the PN Junction is operating in the reverse-biased state, if the external voltage exceeds a certain limit, the PN Junction will collapse, resulting in an excessive amount of current flow(short-circuit). This external voltage is called breakdown voltage and the PN Junction is said to be operating in a breakdown region.
• PN Junction can't recover from the breakdown region so it should be avoided, though it also has a few advantages, which we will cover in the Zener Diode Chapter.
  
• The breakdown voltage depends on the semiconductor used and the amount of impurity added.

Characteristic Curve of PN Junction

The following figure shows the I vs V characteristic curve of a silicon diode:

• As we can see in the above characteristic curve of PN Junction, it has two sections i.e. forward-biased and reverse-biased.
• In the forward-biased state, if the voltage is lower than the built-in potential(i.e. 0.7 for Si), a small amount of current is flowing through the PN Junction but if the voltage overcomes the built-in potential, the current jumps to its maximum value and we can say the PN Junction is conducting.
• In the reverse-biased state, there's no current flowing through the PN Junction until the breakdown voltage is reached.
• At the breakdown voltage, the current starts flowing in the opposite direction and we can say the PN Junction collapsed.
• The small current flowing under reverse bias normal condition is known as leakage current. Germanium(Ge) has more leakage current as compared to Silicon(Si).

So, that's all for today. I hope you have enjoyed today's lecture. In the next lecture, we will discuss the Basics of Diodes, where I am going to repeat today's lecture :)) But I will keep the practical approach in it, so there will be a lot to learn. If you have any questions, you can approach me in the comment section below. Keep your suggestions and feedback coming, they help us deliver quality content. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n3903

Hi Friends! Hope you are doing great. I am back to give you a daily dose of valuable information so you can excel and grow in your relevant field. Transistors are the fundamental parts of most of the electronic circuits. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 2n3903. It is an NPN transistor main used for general purpose amplification and switching applications. Transistor comes in two types i.e. NPN and PNP transistors. This transistor falls under the category of NPN transistor. This is a bipolar junctions transistor where conduction is carried out by movement of both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes. However, electrons are major charge carriers in case of NPN transistors. If you are unsure how these bipolar transistors work, you can check this read on Introduction to Bipolar Junction Transistor. I'll reveal each and everything related to this transistor, so you don't get overwhelmed by all data across the web and find all information in one place. Before we move on to the details of this NPN transistor, you must be clear what is transistor? The transistor is an electronic component that comes with three terminals that are used for external connection with the electronic circuits. The voltage applied to one pair of its terminals is used to control the current at the other pair of terminals. Let's dive in and explore what is this about, its pinout, circuit diagram, applications and everything you need to know.

Introduction to 2n3903

• The 2n3903 is an electronic component called NPN transistor mainly used for general purpose amplification and switching applications.
• It comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and collector.
• This transistor has three layers i.e. two N-doped layers and one P-doped layer. The P-doped layer is a semiconductor that is housed between two N-doped layers.
• The P-doped layer represents the base of the transistor while other two layers represent emitter and collector respectively.
• All three terminals are different in terms of their size and doping concentration. The emitter is highly doped as compared to base and collector.

• The base is lightly doped which is responsible for the electron reaction when a voltage is applied at this terminal. When a voltage is applied, it draws small current which is then used to control large current at the emitter and collector terminals.
• Under normal conditions, the number of electrons diffused into the base terminal is more than the number of holes diffused into the emitter terminal. Electrons act as a majority charge carriers in case of NPN transistor.
• This transistor is an ideal choice for amplification and switching purpose requiring collector current around 100mA.

Pinout of 2n3903

Following figure shows the pinout of this NPN transistor which is composed of three terminals. 1. Emitter  2. Base 3. Collector 

• Movement of electrons plays an important role in the current flowing from emitter to collector.
• The output current obtained at the output terminals is highly dependent on the voltage applied to the base terminal.
• This bipolar transistor is a current controlled device where small current at the base terminal is used to control large current at other terminals. It is different than MOSFET that is voltage controlled unipolar device where conduction is carried out by one charge carrier i.e either electron or hole.

Circuit Diagram of 2n3903

• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of this NPN transistor.

• The emitter is highly doped so it exhibits more current as compared to other terminals. Actually, current at the emitter terminal is a sum of the current at the base and collector terminal.
• Common-Emitter current gain plays an important role in the amplification process. It is a ratio between collector current and base current. It is called beta and denoted by ß. This is also called amplification factor which defines the amount of current being amplified.
• Common-Base current gain is another important factor which exhibits lower value than beta. It is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It is called alpha and denoted by a. Alpha value ranges between 0.95 to 0.99 and most of the time its value is taken as unity.

Absolute Maximum Ratings of 2n3903

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of this NPN transistor.

• These are the stress ratings which play an important role in the execution of the electronic circuit. If these stress ratings are exceeded from absolute maximum ratings, they can damage the device at large, ultimately affecting the overall nature and performance of the project.
• Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions they can affect the reliability of the device.
• It is advised to check these ratings before placing the device in the circuit and make sure device undergoes and follows same operating conditions and stress ratings as defined by the manufacturer.
• Steps and measurements taken in the early stages of your project can save you bunch of time and worry and prevents electronic circuit from being affected.

Difference between PNP and NPN Transistors

• NPN and PNP work in a similar way with the intention of amplification and switching purpose but there is some difference between them.
• Voltage polarities and direction of currents are opposite in these transistors.
• Electrons are majority charge carriers in case of NPN transistors while holes are majority charge carriers in case of PNP transistors, however, both types of transistors require both charge carriers for complete conduction process.
• The base is negative in case of PNP transistor and a negative voltage is applied at the base terminal in order to trigger the holes reaction. And the base is more negative as compared to emitter and collector.
• While in case of NPN transistor, a base is positive and positive voltage is applied at this terminal in order to trigger electron reaction which draws small current that is used to control large current at the emitter and collector terminals.
• These transistors are nothing but a combination of diodes joining back to back.

Applications

• This transistor is mainly used for amplification and switching purpose where collector current around 100mA is required.

You must have look at following articles that are bipolar junctions transistors used for amplification, switching or other electronic applications. 2n5551 - NPN transistor 2n2219 - NPN transistor That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. However, if you are unsure or have any question relating to this transistor, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to best of my expertise and knowledge. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to PNP Transistor

Hey Friends! Hope you are doing great. I am back to give you a daily dose of valuable information so you can always stay ahead of your competitors. I have previously updated the article on NPN transistor that is used for amplification and switching purpose. Today, I am going to unveil the details on the Introduction to PNP Transistor which falls under the category of bipolar junction transistors and comes with three layers i.e. two P-doped layers and one N-doped layer where an N-doped layer exists between two P-doped layers. Main Function: Small current at one terminal is used to control large current at other terminals. Major Charge Carriers:  Holes  These NPN and PNP transistors come with their own benefits based on the nature of the electronic project, however, NPN transistors always deems preferable over PNP transistors because of its quick response due to mobility of electrons while PNP transistors are not preferable for amplification and switching purpose because conduction through mobility of holes deems less useful and beneficial as compared to mobility of electrons. In this tutorial, I’ll discuss each and everything related to this PNP transistor i.e what it does, circuit diagram, applications and everything you need to know. Let’s dive in and explore what is this about and how it is used for the execution of electronic projects.

Introduction to PNP Transistor

• The PNP transistor is a type of bipolar transistor used for amplification and switching purpose and for the designing of the complementary output stage in combination with NPN transistor.
• It comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and collector where small current at the base terminal is used to control large current at other terminals.
• It is a current controlled device also known as sinking device where it sinks current into its base terminal and current flows out of the collector.
• Unlike NPN transistor, current flows from the emitter to collector in this PNP transistor and holes act as a majority charge carriers.

• This transistor comes with same characteristics as NPN transistor but there are some exceptions. In case of PNP transistor, all voltage polarities and current directions will be reversed as compared to NPN transistor. The PNP transistor sinks current into its base while NPN transistor sources current through its base terminal.
• Both NPN and PNP transistors are current controlled devices where conduction is carried out by both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes, but major charge carriers are electrons in case of NPN transistors. While in case of PNP transistor major charge carriers are holes.
• The PNP transistor is like a combination of diodes combined back to back from cathode sides.

Construction

• This PNP transistor is composed of two P-doped layers and one N-doped layer where N-doped layer represents the base of the transistor while other P doped layers represent emitter and collector respectively.
• The base of the transistor is more negative than the emitter terminal.
• All three terminals in the PNP transistor are different in terms of doping concentration and size.
• An emitter is highly doped and exhibits 100% current of the transistor while a base is lightly doped which is responsible for the transistor action and controls the number of holes in case of PNP transistor.
• While collector is lightly doped and comes in a bigger size as compared to other two terminals and collects the number of holes.

Circuit Diagram

• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of PNP transistor.

• In PNP transistor, a source voltage is applied at the emitter terminal (instead of collector terminal in case of NPN transistor) and load resistor is applied that is used to resist the current in the collector terminal.
• Similarly, a bias voltage is applied at the base terminals and a base resistor is connected to this terminal in order to limit the current flowing through this terminal.
• The emitter is connected to a positive voltage while the base is connected to the negative voltage.

Working

• Similar to NPN transistor, PNP transistor comes with two pn junctions i.e. emitter-base junction and collector-base junction.
• An emitter-base junction is forward biased and shows low resistance while collector-base junction is reverse biased and exhibits high resistance. Steps and process required to make these junctions forward biased and reverse biased are different than NPN transistors.
• Emitter-base junction will become forward biased when a base is negative with respect to the emitter and the voltage at the base side is 0.7 V less than the voltage at the emitter side.
• Similarly, emitter-base junction is made reverse biased when applied collector voltage is negative. In case of PNP transistor, emitter voltage is much larger than collector voltage.
• In order to conduct for PNP transistor, emitter voltage must be more positive as compared to both base and collector.
• The transistor will turn on when there is small current flowing from emitter to base terminal.
• In PNP transistors emitter emits holes as compared to NPN where emitter emits electrons.
• When a proper bias voltage is applied at the base terminal, it gets biased and the holes present at emitter terminal moves to the base terminal where they combine with the electron present at this terminal. This generates the small current at the base terminal.
• The base is very thin so it is very difficult for a base to accept all holes injected by the emitter, as a result, most of the holes leave the base terminal and enter collector terminal.

Matched Switch

• Combination of PNP transistor with NPN transistor is used for designing and development of the power amplifier circuits. Power B amplifiers are the great example of this amplifier circuits where both PNP and NPN transistors are incorporated together to generate high amplification cycle.

• Pair of NPN and PNP transistor used in Class B amplifiers is called complementary or matched switch where PNP transistor conducts for the negative half cycle while NPN transistor conducts for the positive half cycle of the transistor.
• This process is used to generate required power for the loudspeaker in both directions. The resulting power generates at the output current is very high which is then equally shared between matched switch composed of NPN and PNP transistor.

Output Characteristics Curve

• The output characteristic curve of PNP transistor looks identical to that of NPN transistor but there is one exception i.e. it is rotated by 180 degrees.
• The same load line is drawn on the characteristic curve that we drew in case of NPN transistor that mentions the operating points of the transistor.
• The following figure shows the characteristics curve of PNP transistor which is drawn between the output current and collector-emitter voltage and is rotated by 180 degrees where current directions and voltage polarities are reversed. The supply voltage becomes negative for PNP transistor.

• The current gains (alpha, beta) value are much less in PNP transistor as compared to NPN transistor. We can calculate the beta value from the following equation;

Difference between PNP and NPN Transistors

• The PNP transistor is known as sinking device while NPN transistor is known as sourcing device.
• The main difference between PNP and NPN transistor is the proper biasing of the base terminal where current directions and voltage polarities are always opposite to each other.
• In PNP transistor, holes are majority carriers while in NPN transistor electrons are majority carriers.
• The emitter voltage is made more positive as compared to both base and collector in PNP transistor. While collector voltage is made more positive as compared to base and emitter in case of NPN transistor.
• The PNP transistor will be considered ON when there is no current at the base terminal. The NPN transistor will be considered ON when there is enough current present at the base terminal.
• In PNP transistor current flows from the emitter to collector, while in case of NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter.
• The base is positive in case of NPN transistor while it is negative in PNP transistor.
• When there is enough voltage applied at the base terminal it gets biased in case of NPN terminal while in case of PNP transistor, negative voltage 0.7 V less than emitter voltage must be applied to trigger transistor action.

Applications

• This transistor is used as a switch for electronic signals.
• It is used in amplifying circuits.
• Used as a matched switch in combination with NPN transistor for generating continuous power.
• Current flow involving heavy motors makes use of these transistors.
• Used in robotic applications where current sinking is required.

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. You are most welcome to add anything valuable related to this transistor. Thanks for reading the article.

Problems Faced by Students in Final Year Project

Hello Friends! Hope you all are doing great. Today, I am very excited because I am going to share my personal experience of streamlining final year project and what are the main Problems Faced by Students in Final Year Project and how to fix them. An idea of developing final year project proves to be very daunting for some students that can scare the hell out of them. They feel like they need to be very prepared and come with a lot of skills and learning before they get their hands on final year project. There are a lot of myth in designing and developing the final year projects that if we deal and address in reality, can fix a lot of worries and save a bunch of time. Let's dive in and discuss the main problems faced by most of the students during the making and execution of final year projects and how they can fix them in order to stay ahead from their peers and secure good marks.

Problems Faced by Students in Final Year Project

There are a lot of problems students may face during the development of the project. However, right steps and proper measurements taken in the early stages of the project can set a right pathway for developing process. Following are some common problems faced by the final year students during project development.

Group Selection

This is the first step and kind of interesting. Everyone feels insecure and wants to join the group that comes with intelligent students of the class. There are two types of students: 1: who are intelligent and worry which student to select in their group. 2. who want to get enrolled themselves in some group of intelligent students. The worry and hassle of the former group look small as compared to the students who are not very talented, feel insecure and look for the help from students who can streamline the project on their own. The very first thing you need to do is to get rid yourself of the thought that only intelligent and genius students can produce a good result when it comes to developing a final year project. I am honestly sharing my thoughts what I had learned from my personal experience that most of the time average students make a promising project that no one can ever think of. Problem with intelligent students is that they can't think out of the box and are very stringent to their rules and don't like change that makes them confined to a small circle of creativity. My sincere advice is, believe in yourself and don't worry if no one is ready to accept you in their group. Be your own boss. It is preferred to make a group of 2,3 average students instead of banging your head on the walls for not getting included in the group of genius students. If you start with believe and clear vision no one can stop you delivering impeccable results.

No Clarity

Most of the students don't know what they are going to develop and how their final product will look like. They start the project with no clarity and think the project will develop and take its own shape as it proceeds. This the first rule to ruin your journey for developing final year project. You must be clear what you are going to do, break down everything into small steps and make sure every step is properly taken care off that will be executed well and on time. When you have no guidelines in hand, your performance and hard work would be at stake.

Ideal Proposal

I can anticipate the students who are reading this post are quite new and haven't had hands-on experience in making the final year project. I can understand, most of the students when entering the final year, are very excited and want to design something different. They want to stun the whole university by their flawless performance so their name is heard and spoken around where everyone knows these students have some special guts. These are the expectations everyone comes across before the development of the project. And this is a good thing as long as your ideas and expectation are aligned with reality. There is no need to dream too high that makes it very difficult for you to convert your dream into reality. Discuss project proposal with your supervisor that you think is possible and can be executed within time. I had many students in my class who proposed very lengthy and complex projects in the first presentation and what they delivered at the end was only 10% of the work they actually discussed. This is not a good thing and can severely affect the overall reputation of your team.

Selection of Components

When you are done submitting a proposal you can deliver on time, this is where a selection of electronic component comes handy. You need to play special heed in the selection of components because wrong selection can put your whole project at risk. It is advised to start small portion of your project using breadboard where small steps and temporary solution are required. Once you are done troubleshooting your project on the breadboard, now it is time to transfer your project to PCB that gives a permanent and reliable solution. Before you intend to place any component on the PCB board, make sure every component comes with exact features and characteristics as defined by the manufacturer. You can order your PCB from PCBWay. If you are feeling skeptical or have any doubt relating to your project, they will not only guide you but also sponsor your project if you prove to be a good fit for their requirements. This is the best company I have found when it comes to developing your final year project. They have a team of professionals and experts who take an extra mile to help you achieve your final goals. We know that developing projects on your own requires lots of expertise, however, if you make a strong contact with the company like this, you'll be able to manifest your skills and expertise in a right way.

Communication Gap

Make sure to circle your project adviser in a loop and keep him updated with all the problems you face throughout the whole process. Project adviser always comes with more experience and can give you some valuable instructions that can prevent your project struggle big time. Develop a proper communication with your team members and allocate each task to every member based on their skills and expertise. If someone is expert in programming, giving him the task of developing electronic circuits is not a good idea.

Work Delay

It looks like quite a long time between the proposal date and development of the whole project. You may feel relaxed during the process but time flies in the blink of an eye and within no time you will be delivering a final presentation for project submission. If you work daily, you will have a bunch of time for troubleshooting and execution process. Most of the students waste the whole year and become serious when there are only one or two months left before project submission. If you work this way, you'll be left no choice but to outsource your project that makes your learning goes dead before it gets started at first place.

 Risk Management

Decide one thing before you start your project; are you looking to learn new thing out of curiosity or you are just interested in marks? The former thing gives you both learning and marks, but starting the project just for the intention of obtaining marks will provide you no or little help converting your knowledge into designing something practical. Don't be afraid of taking a risk. If you are doing mistakes it means you are learning something new. I'd like to share highly relevant words in this situation by Thomas Edison when he was unable to make one project despite doing 10,000 efforts: "I haven't failed. I have just found 10,000 ways that won't work." Try new things, go out of your way, come out of your comfort zone if you really want to deliver something special. That's all for today. I have tried my best to give you a valuable solution to each problem. You are most welcome to share your experience of developing final year project. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you based on my expertise and knowledge. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to NPN Transistor

Hello Friends! I hope you are well. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to NPN transistor. In this tutorial, we'll look at the NPN transistor, how it works, circuit diagram, output characteristics curve, and applications. It is a bipolar junction transistor mainly used for current amplification and switching purposes. BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistor) are divided into two types i.e. NPN transistor and PNP transistor. Both transistors are different in terms of their electrical composition and construction, however, both are used for amplification and switching purposes in one way or the other.

What is NPN Transistor?

• NPN transistor is a bipolar junction transistor(BJT), composed of 3 semiconductor layers in a way that one P-doped layer(Base) is sandwiched between two N-doped layers(Emitter & Collector) and is mainly used for current amplification and fast switching.
• In NPN transistors, the majority charge carriers are electrons and thus conduction is carried out by the flow of electrons from emitter to collector.
• NPN transistor package comes with three terminals named:
  1. Emitter.
  2. Base.
  3. Collector.
• These terminals are used for external connection with the circuit and a small current at the base terminal is used to control the large current at the collector and emitter side. (We will cover it in detail in the working section)

Let's have a look at the symbol of NPN transistor:

NPN Transistor Symbol

• As we use logos to represent companies, similarly in electronics, specific symbols are used to represent components. These electronic symbols prove helpful in designing circuit diagrams especially block diagrams of electronic models.
• Below figure shows the NPN transistor's Symbol:

Now let's have a look at the Construction of NPN Transistor:

Construction of NPN Transistor

• NPN transistor consists of 3 regions, two of them are constructed using N-type semiconductor material while the third one is of P-Type Semiconductor.
• The P-type region is sandwiched between these two N-Type regions.
• So hypothetically, NPN Transistor is constructed by connecting two diodes in opposite directions.
• The equivalent circuit of NPN transistor is shown in the below figure:

• An NPN transistor has two P-N junctions in it, named as:
  1. Emitter-Base Junction.
  2. Collector Base Junction.

Doping Concentration in NPN Transistor

• Impurities are added to Intrinsic(Pure) Semiconductors which increase their conductivity and are called Extrinsic(Doped) Semiconductors.
• In NPN transistors, the Base region is heavily doped, the Emitter is lightly doped while Collector's doping lies in between the Base & Emitter.
• So, in terms of doping concentration from high to low, we have the sequence as follow:

Base > Collector > Emitter

• Moreover, the Base region is constructed using P-type semiconductors, while Emitter & Collector are designed using N-type semiconductors.

Now, let's have a look at the working of NPN transistors:

How NPN Transistor Works?

• The NPN transistor comes with two junctions, called:
  1. Emitter-Base Junction.
  2. Collector-Base Junction.
• The NPN transistor sets in operating condition when an emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased and enough current is present at the base terminal. In order to make emitter-base junction forward biased, a positive voltage is applied at the base side and a negative voltage is applied at the emitter side.
• Similarly, in order to make emitter-base junction reverse biased, collector voltage must be kept more positive than base and collector.

Circuit Diagram

Following figure shows the circuit diagram of the NPN transistor.

• We can see from the diagram, voltage and resistive loads are applied at the terminals of the transistor.
• A negative voltage is connected to the emitter while a positive voltage is connected to the base terminals.
• The base is more positive with respect to the emitter.
• The resistive load is applied at the base terminal which limits the current produced in this terminal.
• The positive voltage is applied at the collector terminal and load resistance is applied at this terminal that limits the electrons entering at this terminal.

Working

• The base is responsible for initiating transistor action. When a voltage is applied at the base, it gets biased and draws a small current which is then used to control a large current at the collector and emitter side.
• The base action is considered as an ON-OFF valve that generates current when a proper bias voltage is applied at this terminal.
• The small change in the voltage applied at the base terminal shows a large impact on the output terminals. Actually, the base acts as an input and the collector acts as an output in NPN transistor.
• In case of silicon transistor emitter-base junction draws voltage around 0.7 when there is no voltage at the base terminal, in order to initiate the electron action and put the transistor in running condition, the base voltage must be greater than 0.7 voltage in the case of silicon transistor and 0.3 in case of germanium transistor.
• In the N-side of the transistor which represents emitter, the electrons act as the majority charge carriers which are then diffused into the base when a suitable voltage is applied at the base terminal. These electrons act as minority charge carriers when they enter the base terminal, where they join with holes present in the base. Not all electrons join with the holes present at the base terminal. Some of them join with the holes, and the resulting electron-hole pair disappears. Most of the electrons leave the base terminal and then enter the collector region where they again act as a majority charge carriers.
• When a voltage is applied across the base terminal, the base current is given by;

 

• Collector current is directly related to base current times a constant factor.
• In order to increase the efficiency of the NPN transistor, the base is made very thin and a collector is made thick for two reasons i.e collector can handle more heat and accept more electrons diffused through the base terminal.

Current Gains and Relation between Them

• Current gains play an important role in the amplification process. The common emitter current gain is a ratio between collector current and base current. It is called beta and denoted by ß. It is also known as an amplification factor which defines the amount of current being amplified.
• Beta is a ratio between two currents, so it features no unit. The beta value is always greater than unity and ranges between 20 to 1000 - 20 for high power transistors and 1000 for low power transistors, however, most of the time its value is taken as 50.
• Similarly, a common base current gain is another important factor which is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It is called alpha and denoted by a. An alpha value ranges between 0.95 and 0.99, however, most of the time its value is taken as unity.
• Following figure shows the relation between two current gains.

• IF alpha = 0.99 then b = 0.99/0.01 = 99.
• An alpha value cannot exceed from unity, because it is a ratio between collector current and emitter current i.e emitter current always remains greater than collector current because it exhibits 100% current of the transistor and is equal to the sum of collector current and base current.

NPN Transistor Configurations

• This NPN transistor can be configured into three configurations called common emitter configuration, common collector configuration, and common base configuration.
• Common emitter configuration is mostly used for amplification purpose where base acts as an input, collector acts as an output while emitter acts as a common terminal between input and output.
• This common emitter configuration acts always operates in a linear region where small current at the base side is used to control large current at the collector side.
• The common emitter configuration used in the electronic circuits always produces inverted output that is highly affected by the bias voltage and temperature. This configuration is an ideal choice for ampliation circuits because it comes with high input impedance and low output impedance and produces the exact voltage and power gain required for amplification purpose.
• During common emitter configuration, transistor always operates between saturation and cut-off region that helps in amplifying the negative and positive cycles of the input signals. If the base terminal is not biased with the proper voltage, only half of the signal would be amplified.

Output Characteristics Curve of NPN Transistor

Following figure shows the output characteristic curve of the NPN bipolar transistor which is plotted between output collector current and the collector-emitter voltage with varying base current.

• As described earlier, there will be no output collector current if the applied voltage at the base terminal is zero. When proper bias voltage above 0.7 V, is applied at the base terminal, it gets biased and draws current that controls and effects the output collector current.
• We can see, Vce directly effects the value of output collector current as long as the applied voltage is 1 V. Above that value collector current no longer remains under the influence of Vce value. In that case, the collector current is widely dependent and controlled by the base current. A small change in the base current and bias voltage would produce a large change in the collector current.
• The load resistor applied at the collector terminal controls the amount of current entering the collector terminals. Keeping in the view of the load resistor and the voltage applied at the collector-emitter terminals, the collector current is given by;

• Straight load line between point A and B falls under active region when an emitter-base junction is forward biased and the transistor conducts where electrons are majority charge carriers.
• The Q point in the graph can be defined by the load line which is actually referred as an operating point of the transistor.
• The output characteristics curve of this NPN transistor is used to describe the collector current when base current and collector voltage is given.
• In order to conduct, collector voltage needs to be more positive than base and emitter.
• It is important to note that, when an emitter-base junction is not forward biased, Ic will be zero, no matter how much voltage is applied at the base terminals. When the emitter-base junction is forward biased and voltage is applied at the base terminal, it draws small current which is then used to control large current at other terminals.

Difference between NPN and PNP Transistors

• Both NPN and PNP transistors are different in terms of electrical construction and layers doping. NPN stands for negative-positive-negative and also known as sourcing device. While PNP stands for positive-negative-positive and also known as sinking device.
• In NPN transistor base is positive as compared to emitter and collector voltage is more positive as compared to both emitter and base. Similarly, in PNP transistor base is negative as compared to emitter and emitter voltage is much larger than collector voltage.
• The voltage polarities and current directions are reversed in both transistors.
• The NPN transistor conducts and initiates transistor action when a positive voltage is applied at the base terminal. The PNP transistor conducts when a negative voltage lower 0.7 V (for silicon) than emitter voltage is applied at the base terminal.
• The NPN transistor uses electrons as majority charge carriers for the conduction while PNP transistor uses holes as majority charge carriers for conduction process.
• In NPN transistor current flows from the collector to emitter while in case of PNP transistor current flows from emitter to collector terminal.
• Both transistors differ in terms of how they are powered on. The NPN transistor powers on when there is enough current present at the base terminal while PNP transistor powers on when there is no current at the base terminal.

Now, let's have a look at the applications of NPN transistor:

Applications of NPN Transistor

NPN Transistor is the most commonly used type of transistor because of its wide range of applications. A few of NPN transistor applications are as follows:

• As NPN transistors are fast switching devices, thus they are used for switching purposes i.e. Pulse Width Modulation.
• NPN transistors are also used as automatic switches in electronics products.
• Because of high current gain, NPN transistors are used for current amplification i.e. small current at input allows heavy current to pass at the output(Ic).
• In embedded computers(i.e. microcontrollers, microprocessors etc.), thousands of transistors are joined together(in SMD form) performing different functions i.e. switching of pins.

Real-Life Applications of NPN Transistor

• Used in logarithmic converters and high-frequency applications.
• Signal processing and radio transmission applications involve NPN transistors.
• Darlington pair circuits make use of this NPN transistor for amplifying signals.
• Used in temperature sensor.
• Push-Pull amplifying circuits, which fall under the category of the classic amplifier circuit, make use of this NPN transistor.
• In small quantities, transistors are used to make logic circuits and in the circuits where amplification is required.

That's all for today. I hope you have got clear what is NPN transistor and why it is used for. If you are unsure or have any questions, you can approach me in the comment section below, I'd love to help you according to the best of my expertise and knowledge. Feel free to keep us updated with your feedback and suggestions, they help us provide you quality content that aligns with your needs and requirements. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n5884

Hey Friends! Hope you are doing great. I am here to provide you the technical knowledge that helps you stay ahead of your competitors. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 2n5884. It is a power PNP bipolar junction transistor mainly used for general purpose amplification and switching purpose. This is a complementary silicon epitaxial-base transistor that can support 25 A and 80 V. I'll discuss each and everything related to this transistor i.e. what it does, its pinout, circuit diagram and main applications. You must have a look at comprehensive read on Introduction to Bipolar Transistor if you are unsure how these bipolar transistors work. Before we dive into the details of this PNP transistor we must be aware what is transistor? The transistor is a semiconductor device that comes with three terminals where a voltage applied to one pair of terminals controls the current on the other pair of terminals. Let's dive in and explore everything you need to know about this PNP transistor.

Introduction to 2n5884

• The 2n5884 is a power PNP bipolar transistor mainly used for general purpose amplification and switching purpose.
• It is a silicon semiconductor device that comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and collector.
• It comes with three layers where one N-doped layer is housed between two P-doped layers. The N layer represents the base of the transistor, while other two layers represent emitter and collector respectively.
• This component is also known as a current controlled device where a voltage applied at the base terminal is used to control large current at the emitter and collector terminals.
• This PNP component is a little bit different than its counterpart NPN transistor, however, both are bipolar components where current is carried out by the movement of both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes. Electrons are major charge carriers in NPN transistor and holes are major charge carriers in PNP transistor.

• When a voltage is applied at the base terminal, it gets biased and draws current which is then used to control large current at the emitter and collector terminals.
• All these three terminals are different in terms of their size and doping concentration. An emitter is highly doped and carries more current as compared to base and collector. The base is lightly doped which is responsible to trigger electron reaction at the base terminal. The collector is moderately doped which accepts the holes in case of this PNP transistor.
• Output current obtained at the collector terminal is highly dependent on the voltage applied at the base terminal. This process is used for amplification purpose.
• You must have a look at the construction of diode which plays a vital role in the construction of this bipolar transistor.

Pinout of 2n5884

• Following figure shows the pinout of this PNP transistor which is composed of three terminals.

1. Base 2. Emitter 3. Collector 

• Movement of holes plays an important role in the output current obtained at the output terminals.
• Unlike NPN transistor, a negative voltage is applied at the base terminal in this PNP transistor where the base is more negative as compared to emitter and collector.

Circuit Diagram of 2n5884

Following figure shows the circuit diagram of 2n5884.

• An emitter is highly doped so current at the emitter side more than current at the collector and base side. Actually, emitter current is the sum of base and collector current.
• Unlike NPN transistor, holes are diffused through the base from the emitter in this PNP transistor, which are then collected by the collector.
• This PNP transistor is used for amplification purpose, however, most of the professionals don't recommend this transistor for amplification purpose and pick NPN transistor for amplification because conduction carried out by the movement of electrons is more effective and suitable than conduction carried out by the movement of holes.
• This transistor is different than JFET which is unipolar transistor i.e conduction is carried out by single charge carrier.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of this PNP transistor.

• It is important to note that, these are the suitable stress ratings recommended by the manufacturer, which if exceed from absolute maximum ratings, can damage the device severely.
• Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions, they can affect the overall reliability of the device.
• Take these ratings into consideration and make sure this component exhibits and follows same ratings defined by the manufacturer before you intend to place this component into your project.
• Proper measurements taken the early stages of your project can save your bunch of time and worry that can affect the nature and overall performance of the project.

Applications

• This component is used for amplification and switching purpose.

You must also have a look at following transistors of same nature used for amplification, switching, and different electronic applications.

• 2n3773 - NPN transistor
• 2n5401 - PNP transistor

That's all for today. I hope you have found enough information about this component. In case you are feeling unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to best of my knowledge and expertise. Keep your suggestions and feedback coming, they allow us to give you quality content that aligns with your field of interest. Thanks for reading the article.